{"id":1983,"date":"2017-06-20T07:44:04","date_gmt":"2017-06-20T07:44:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/new\/?p=1983"},"modified":"2017-07-13T12:26:14","modified_gmt":"2017-07-13T12:26:14","slug":"the-kings-of-rwanda","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/2017\/06\/20\/the-kings-of-rwanda\/","title":{"rendered":"The Kings of Rwanda."},"content":{"rendered":"
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The<\/span> Kings<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span><\/p>\n

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Fathers<\/span> of<\/span> a Nation<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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by<\/span><\/p>\n

Stewart<\/span> Addington<\/span> Saint-David<\/span><\/p>\n

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a publication<\/span> of<\/span><\/p>\n

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The<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Royal Rwandan<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Association<\/span><\/i> of<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Knighthood<\/span><\/i> <\/i>and<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Nobility<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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PART <\/span>I<\/p>\n

The<\/span> Eye<\/span> of God:<\/span>Rwandan<\/span> Kings<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Pre-Colonial<\/span> Age<\/span> (ca.<\/span> 1200-1895<\/span> AD)<\/span><\/p>\n

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In<\/span> an era<\/span> of<\/span> ten-second<\/span> sound<\/span> bytes<\/span> and<\/span> mass media,<\/span> it is<\/span> sometimes<\/span> rather<\/span> difficult to<\/span> imagine<\/span> a society<\/span> founded<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> notion<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> political,<\/span> administrative<\/span> and<\/span> religious<\/span> centrality<\/span> of<\/span> a hereditary<\/span> monarch.<\/span> The<\/span> various<\/span> institutions<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Western<\/span> world,<\/span> largely<\/span> the<\/span> inheritance<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Enlightenment,<\/span> have<\/span> fixed<\/span> firmly<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> public<\/span> mind<\/span> a model<\/span> of<\/span> democratic<\/span> government<\/span> that has<\/span> been<\/span> cut<\/span> to fit <\/span>a wide range<\/span> of<\/span> national<\/span> situations,<\/span> often<\/span> with<\/span> very<\/span> mixed<\/span> results.<\/span> Informed<\/span> democracy,<\/span> while<\/span> certainly<\/span> a major<\/span> step<\/span> forward<\/span> in<\/span> man’s<\/span> uneven<\/span> progress<\/span> toward<\/span> self-realization,<\/span> has<\/span> not been<\/span> the<\/span> universal<\/span> panacea promised<\/span> by<\/span> so<\/span> many<\/span> of the<\/span> hopeful<\/span> and<\/span> far-thinking<\/span> political<\/span> philosophers of<\/span> the 18th<\/span> and<\/span> 19th<\/span> centuries.<\/span> Many are<\/span> the failed<\/span> experiments<\/span> in<\/span> democratic<\/span> government,<\/span> frequently<\/span> imposed<\/span> or<\/span> inspired<\/span> by<\/span> foreign<\/span> powers,<\/span> that<\/span> have<\/span> littered<\/span> the<\/span> African<\/span> continent<\/span> in<\/span> particular<\/span> since<\/span> the<\/span> middle<\/span> decades<\/span> of the 20th<\/span> century.<\/span><\/p>\n

Long before<\/span> the<\/span> notion<\/span> of<\/span> democracy<\/span> ever<\/span> appeared on<\/span> the shores<\/span> of<\/span> Africa,<\/span> however,<\/span> there<\/span> existed<\/span> the<\/span> small<\/span> southeastern<\/span> kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda,<\/span> originally<\/span> confined<\/span> to the<\/span> open savanna<\/span> between<\/span> Lake Victoria<\/span> and<\/span> Lake<\/span> Kivu, and<\/span> whose<\/span> modern<\/span> roots<\/span> as a sovereign<\/span> and<\/span> independent nation date<\/span> back to the<\/span> 13th<\/span> century.<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> constituted<\/span> a triple<\/span> exception<\/span> in<\/span> Africa,<\/span> for<\/span> she was<\/span> a true<\/span> nation-state.<\/span><\/p>\n

Comprised<\/span> of<\/span> three<\/span> different<\/span> and<\/span> yet<\/span> interrelated<\/span> groups-<\/span> the<\/span> Twa,<\/span> the<\/span> Hutu<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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Tutsi- the<\/span> Kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> was<\/span> not<\/span> the<\/span> random patchwork<\/span> creation<\/span> of<\/span> some<\/span> European<\/span> colonial<\/span> power<\/span> which<\/span> had<\/span> simply<\/span> imposed<\/span> its<\/span> will<\/span> on<\/span> a collection<\/span> of<\/span> tribes<\/span> and\/or regions, but rather <\/span>a true<\/span> nation<\/span> in<\/span> every sense<\/span> of<\/span> the word. <\/span>In addition,<\/span> and<\/span> despite<\/span> the<\/span> artificial<\/span> distinctions<\/span> later<\/span> introduced<\/span> by<\/span> colonial<\/span> imperialists<\/span> determined<\/span> to divide<\/span> and<\/span> conquer her,<\/span> the<\/span> three<\/span> groups<\/span> that<\/span> comprised<\/span> her<\/span> population<\/span> together<\/span> constituted<\/span> one<\/span> unique<\/span> and<\/span> identical<\/span> ethnicity,<\/span> that of<\/span> the<\/span> Banyarwanda,<\/span> or<\/span> “people<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda.”<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> first<\/span> signs<\/span> of<\/span> a human presence in<\/span> the area<\/span> now<\/span> known<\/span> as Rwanda<\/span> date<\/span> from<\/span> about<\/span> 1000<\/span> BC, and<\/span> archaeologists<\/span> have<\/span> there<\/span> discovered<\/span> the<\/span> remains<\/span> of<\/span> a civilization<\/span> that<\/span> had<\/span> mastered<\/span> both<\/span> the<\/span> production<\/span> of<\/span> iron<\/span> and<\/span> of<\/span> pottery.<\/span> The area<\/span> was originally<\/span> populated<\/span> by Pygmy<\/span> tribes, ancestors<\/span> of<\/span> the Twa,<\/span> and<\/span> it<\/span> was<\/span> early<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> first<\/span> millennium<\/span> AD that<\/span> the<\/span> Tutsi (originally<\/span> from<\/span> the<\/span> areas<\/span> north<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda)<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> Hutu<\/span> (originally<\/span> from<\/span> the<\/span> areas<\/span> south<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda)<\/span> initially<\/span> migrated<\/span> to<\/span> this<\/span> beautiful<\/span> and<\/span> fertile<\/span> land<\/span> of<\/span> rolling<\/span> hills,<\/span> open<\/span> plains<\/span> and<\/span> large,<\/span> crystalline<\/span> lakes.<\/span><\/p>\n

While<\/span> little<\/span> is<\/span> known<\/span> about<\/span> the<\/span> many individuals<\/span> who<\/span> reigned<\/span> over<\/span> the<\/span> people<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> as king,<\/span> or<\/span> mwami<\/span> (plural<\/span> abami),<\/span> during<\/span> the<\/span> ages<\/span> that<\/span> preceded<\/span> the<\/span> arrival<\/span> of<\/span> European<\/span> explorers<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> mid-19th<\/span> century,<\/span> a considerable amount<\/span> of<\/span> information<\/span> is<\/span> available<\/span> about<\/span> the<\/span> r\u00f4le<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> in<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> society.<\/span> Thanks<\/span> to the<\/span> collection<\/span> of<\/span> rituals<\/span> and<\/span> protocols<\/span> known<\/span> as the Gakondo,<\/span> first passed on<\/span> by<\/span> means<\/span> of<\/span> oral<\/span> tradition,<\/span> and<\/span> later<\/span> committed<\/span> to<\/span> writing<\/span> after<\/span> the<\/span> coming<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Europeans,<\/span> it<\/span> is<\/span> possible<\/span> to<\/span> acquire <\/span>a strong<\/span> appreciation<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nature and<\/span> primacy<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> king in<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> state,<\/span> and<\/span> to gain<\/span> important insights<\/span> into<\/span> the<\/span> absolutely<\/span> pivotal<\/span> r\u00f4le occupied<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> monarch<\/span> in<\/span> the life of<\/span> the<\/span> nation and<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> people.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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\u00a0<\/span>Map of<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Modern<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Rwanda<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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Like<\/span> many<\/span> other<\/span> African<\/span> sovereigns<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> period,<\/span> the mwami<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda <\/span>was the<\/span> undisputed<\/span> master<\/span> of<\/span> the entirety<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> kingdom,<\/span> and<\/span> his<\/span> word<\/span> was<\/span> quite<\/span> literally<\/span> law.<\/span> His<\/span> decisions,<\/span> although<\/span> often<\/span> taken<\/span> in<\/span> consultation<\/span> with<\/span> his<\/span> counselors,<\/span> or<\/span> abiru,<\/span> were<\/span> not subject<\/span> to appeal,<\/span> and<\/span> failure<\/span> to comply with<\/span> his<\/span> will<\/span> was punishable<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> most<\/span> rigorous<\/span> way<\/span> possible.<\/span> The<\/span> scholar<\/span> Donat<\/span> Murego<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> University<\/span> of<\/span> Louvain,<\/span> who<\/span> has devoted<\/span> much of<\/span> his work<\/span> to the<\/span> study<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> idea<\/span> of<\/span> “sacred<\/span> royalty”<\/span> in<\/span> pre-colonial<\/span> Africa,<\/span> states<\/span> unequivocally<\/span> that<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> conquest<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Hutu<\/span> and<\/span> Twa chiefs<\/span> by<\/span> the Tutsi kings in<\/span> the<\/span> 13th<\/span> century,<\/span> “Tutsi<\/span> power was<\/span> established,<\/span> the Hutu and<\/span> their<\/span> former<\/span> chiefs<\/span> had been<\/span> defeated<\/span> and<\/span> reduced<\/span> to<\/span> servitude.<\/span> After<\/span> having sought<\/span> to take<\/span> in<\/span> hand<\/span> every<\/span> decision<\/span> and<\/span> to control the<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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entirety<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> administration,<\/span> the<\/span> Tutsi monarch<\/span> finished by<\/span> placing<\/span> his<\/span> supreme<\/span> authority<\/span> beyond<\/span> question.<\/span> It is<\/span> he who<\/span> distributes<\/span> the privileges;<\/span> he<\/span> is<\/span> judged<\/span> by no<\/span> one,<\/span> controlled<\/span> by<\/span> no<\/span> one.<\/span> No independent<\/span> or autonomous<\/span> structure,<\/span> having its<\/span> own<\/span> powers<\/span> exists<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> sphere,<\/span> and<\/span> therefore<\/span> cannot<\/span> limit<\/span> him.<\/span> From<\/span> the<\/span> king<\/span> flows<\/span> all<\/span> power,<\/span> all<\/span> authority,<\/span> all<\/span> decisions.”<\/span><\/p>\n

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\u00a0Intare<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Warriors<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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The<\/span> life<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> was<\/span> not<\/span> one<\/span> of<\/span> undiluted<\/span> comfort and<\/span> boundless<\/span> pleasures,<\/span> however,<\/span> for his<\/span> real<\/span> work<\/span> as cornerstone<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> frequently<\/span> demanded<\/span> great<\/span> sacrifices<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> man solely responsible<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> continued<\/span> welfare<\/span> and<\/span> happiness<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> people.<\/span> “Father<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> people,”<\/span> writes<\/span> modern<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> historian<\/span> Benjamin<\/span> Sehene,<\/span> “the<\/span> mwami<\/span> played<\/span> the<\/span> r\u00f4le<\/span> of<\/span> savior<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation,<\/span> particularly<\/span> in<\/span> times<\/span> of<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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crisis:<\/span> wars,<\/span> political<\/span> rivalries<\/span> or<\/span> internal<\/span> conflicts.<\/span> It<\/span> was<\/span> frequently<\/span> that<\/span> he<\/span> sacrificed<\/span> himself<\/span> by<\/span> going<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> forefront<\/span> of<\/span> danger;<\/span> during<\/span> battles,<\/span> for<\/span> example,<\/span> but<\/span> also<\/span> by<\/span> committing<\/span> suicide or<\/span> by<\/span> letting<\/span> himself<\/span> be<\/span> ‘assassinated’<\/span> and<\/span> replaced<\/span> by<\/span> another<\/span> if<\/span> the<\/span> abiru,<\/span> ritualists<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Court,<\/span> decided<\/span> that<\/span> this<\/span> was necessary<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> safety of<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom.”<\/span> Thus<\/span> the<\/span> position<\/span> of<\/span> mwami<\/span> was one<\/span> that often<\/span> placed<\/span> great<\/span> demands<\/span> on<\/span> its<\/span> titularies,<\/span> despite<\/span> the<\/span> myriad<\/span> and<\/span> far-ranging<\/span> powers<\/span> associated<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> exercise<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> sacred<\/span> office.<\/span><\/p>\n

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The<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Palace<\/span><\/i> <\/i>of<\/span><\/i> the<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Mwami<\/span><\/i> <\/i>at<\/span><\/i> Nyanza<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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Over<\/span> the<\/span> course<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> centuries, and<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> strong<\/span> central<\/span> rule<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> abami,<\/span> the<\/span> three<\/span> different<\/span> groups<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> population<\/span> lived<\/span> side-by-side and<\/span> gradually melded<\/span> into<\/span> one,<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Banyarwanda.<\/span> The<\/span> people<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation-state<\/span> eventually<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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came<\/span> to speak<\/span> a common<\/span> language,<\/span> Kinyarwanda,<\/span> to share<\/span> a common<\/span> native<\/span> animistic<\/span> religion<\/span> and<\/span> to partake<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> same social<\/span> and<\/span> cultural<\/span> rituals<\/span> and<\/span> activities.<\/span> In addition,<\/span> as intermarriage<\/span> and<\/span> social<\/span> interaction<\/span> between<\/span> the<\/span> groups<\/span> became<\/span> increasingly<\/span> common<\/span> at this<\/span> time,<\/span> thus<\/span> were<\/span> born<\/span> both<\/span> the<\/span> modern<\/span> kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda and<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> of<\/span> the Banyarwanda.<\/span>Below<\/span> the<\/span> monarch,<\/span> who<\/span> wielded<\/span> supreme<\/span> power<\/span> over<\/span> his<\/span> dominion,<\/span> were<\/span> the<\/span> various<\/span> members<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> family,<\/span> his<\/span> wives<\/span> and<\/span> children,<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> chiefs<\/span> and<\/span> sub-chiefs<\/span> who<\/span> executed<\/span> his<\/span> will<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> local<\/span> level<\/span> and<\/span> who<\/span> were<\/span> directly<\/span> responsible<\/span> to<\/span> him for<\/span> the<\/span> payment<\/span> of<\/span> taxes<\/span> and<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> general<\/span> administration<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom.<\/span> Because<\/span> of<\/span> its<\/span> relatively<\/span> small<\/span> size,<\/span> however,<\/span> it<\/span> was<\/span> possible for<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> to<\/span> rule<\/span> the<\/span> country<\/span> quasi-personally<\/span> for<\/span> much<\/span> of<\/span> its<\/span> history,<\/span> particularly<\/span> as<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> royal<\/span> court<\/span> was<\/span> a<\/span> peripatetic<\/span> one until<\/span> the<\/span> early<\/span> part<\/span> of<\/span> the 20th<\/span> century.<\/span> According <\/span>to<\/span> the<\/span> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>historian<\/span> Alexis<\/span> Kagame,<\/span> at<\/span> this<\/span> juncture<\/span> in<\/span> her<\/span> history<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> was<\/span> quite<\/span> \u00a0<\/span>literally<\/span> considered<\/span> to<\/span> be<\/span> “the<\/span> eye<\/span> of<\/span> God,<\/span> by<\/span> which<\/span> He<\/span> contemplate[d]<\/span> Rwanda.”<\/span> In<\/span> fact,<\/span> the king was<\/span> sole<\/span> possessor<\/span> of<\/span> all<\/span> property<\/span> of<\/span> any<\/span> kind within<\/span> the<\/span> borders<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> kingdom, and<\/span> he <\/span>carried<\/span> the<\/span> additional<\/span> title<\/span> of<\/span> Sebantu<\/span> or<\/span> “owner<\/span> of<\/span> men.”<\/span><\/p>\n

According<\/span> to<\/span> Alexandre<\/span> Pages,<\/span> “the king<\/span> inspired<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> entourage<\/span> a very<\/span> humble<\/span> respect,<\/span> mixed<\/span> with<\/span> a constant<\/span> uncertainty.<\/span> The<\/span> uncertainty<\/span> that<\/span> his<\/span> dignified<\/span> yet<\/span> somewhat<\/span> haughty<\/span> attitude<\/span> instilled<\/span> in<\/span> them<\/span> never<\/span> ceased<\/span> to<\/span> torture<\/span> these<\/span> ambitious<\/span> seekers<\/span> of<\/span> fortune.<\/span> Also,<\/span> they<\/span> spied<\/span> with<\/span> some<\/span> apprehension<\/span> the<\/span> various<\/span> movements<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> august<\/span> countenance<\/span> which,<\/span> while<\/span> remaining<\/span> most<\/span> frequently<\/span> closed,<\/span> \u00a0<\/span>sometimes<\/span> betrayed<\/span> his<\/span> most<\/span> intimate<\/span> feelings<\/span> and<\/span> his<\/span> most<\/span> spontaneous<\/span> inclinations. <\/span>A rapid<\/span> flash<\/span> of<\/span> anger<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> eyes<\/span> foretold<\/span> disgrace<\/span> and<\/span> perhaps death;<\/span> a<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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sunny smile<\/span> on<\/span> his<\/span> severe<\/span> visage<\/span> made<\/span> for the unfolding<\/span> of<\/span> radiant hopes.<\/span> These<\/span> brusque<\/span> and<\/span> capricious<\/span> changes-<\/span> which<\/span> could<\/span> determine<\/span> the<\/span> future<\/span> and<\/span> even<\/span> decide<\/span> between<\/span> life<\/span> and<\/span> death-<\/span> kept these<\/span> souls perpetually in<\/span> suspense<\/span> between<\/span> a fear<\/span> that<\/span> could<\/span> induce shivers and<\/span> a peacefulness<\/span> as pleasant <\/span>as a fresh<\/span> breeze.”<\/span> Thus,<\/span> at the<\/span> apogee<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> pre-colonial<\/span> era<\/span> of<\/span> the kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda,<\/span> the<\/span> monarch<\/span> was both<\/span> all-<\/span> powerful<\/span> and,<\/span> in<\/span> the eyes<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> many<\/span> subjects,<\/span> all-knowing,<\/span> the<\/span> veritable<\/span> incarnation<\/span> of<\/span> a god.<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> Mwami<\/span> Cyirima<\/span> (r.<\/span> 1482-1506)<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Nyiginya<\/span> Dynasty<\/span> expanded<\/span> the<\/span> domains<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> to<\/span> include<\/span> several<\/span> new<\/span> areas,<\/span> conquering<\/span> the neighboring<\/span> chiefdoms<\/span> of<\/span> Bumbogo,<\/span> Buriza<\/span> and<\/span> Rukoma.<\/span> This<\/span> state,<\/span> however,<\/span> was<\/span> somewhat<\/span> subservient<\/span> to its<\/span> larger<\/span> neighbors, and<\/span> was later<\/span> overcome<\/span> by the<\/span> Bunyoro<\/span> of<\/span> present-day<\/span> Uganda.<\/span> Nevertheless,<\/span> few<\/span> truly<\/span> significant<\/span> details<\/span> emerge,<\/span> as the<\/span> paucity<\/span> of<\/span> written<\/span> accounts<\/span> from<\/span> this<\/span> period<\/span> of<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> history<\/span> has<\/span> forced<\/span> modern<\/span> scholars <\/span>to rely<\/span> heavily<\/span> on<\/span> oral<\/span> traditions<\/span> of<\/span> the age<\/span> to fill<\/span> in<\/span> the many gaps<\/span> present<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> historical<\/span> record.<\/span><\/p>\n

After<\/span> their defeat at<\/span> the hands<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Bunyoro, the<\/span> remnants<\/span> of<\/span> the Rwandan<\/span> kingdom<\/span> relocated<\/span> west<\/span> to the<\/span> Nduga<\/span> highlands,<\/span> where<\/span> they<\/span> soon<\/span> came<\/span> to flourish<\/span> again<\/span> as a nation.<\/span> In<\/span> the<\/span> early<\/span> 17th<\/span> century,<\/span> under<\/span> the inspired<\/span> rule<\/span> of<\/span> Ruganzu<\/span> II Ndori<\/span> (r.<\/span> 1600-1624 AD),<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> expanded<\/span> in<\/span> all<\/span> directions,<\/span> and<\/span> Buganza<\/span> was retaken.<\/span> Later<\/span> rulers<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> continued<\/span> this<\/span> drive toward<\/span> expansion,<\/span> and<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> mid-18th<\/span> century,<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> state had<\/span> become<\/span> far<\/span> more<\/span> powerful<\/span> and<\/span> centralized,<\/span> thus<\/span> manifesting<\/span> more<\/span> of<\/span> a historical<\/span> presence than<\/span> ever<\/span> it<\/span> had<\/span> before.<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> expansion of<\/span> the 18th<\/span> century<\/span> eventually<\/span> reached<\/span> the shores of<\/span> Lake Kivu,<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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and had as its primary goal not military conquest, but the migration of the Rwandan population into other fertile areas, thereby spreading its agricultural techniques, its social and political structures, and effectively extending the power base of its abami. Outposts of warriors were established along the borders of the kingdom, with the aim of protecting vulnerable frontier areas from unwanted incursions. It was only against other advanced states, such as Gisaka, Bugesera and Burundi that expansion was undertaken using primarily military means.<\/p>\n

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Lake<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Kivu<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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The three groups of Rwanda’s population, despite the long-term effects of intermarriage and a common culture, settled into distinctive r\u00f4les which, when considered in their totality, were each of great and lasting benefit to the development<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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of<\/span> the<\/span> society<\/span> as a whole.<\/span> The<\/span> Twa maintained<\/span> themselves<\/span> largely<\/span> through<\/span> hunting<\/span> wild<\/span> animals,<\/span> the<\/span> Hutu<\/span> through<\/span> agriculture<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> Tutsi through<\/span> the<\/span> raising<\/span> of<\/span> livestock.<\/span> Thus<\/span> each<\/span> group<\/span> played<\/span> its<\/span> part in<\/span> the<\/span> ongoing<\/span> growth<\/span> and<\/span> prosperity of <\/span>a nation<\/span> where<\/span> different<\/span> avenues<\/span> of<\/span> social<\/span> mobility<\/span> were<\/span> open<\/span> to<\/span> all<\/span> through<\/span> marriage,<\/span> service<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> state<\/span> and<\/span> economic<\/span> achievement.<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> main<\/span> holdings<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> were<\/span> comprised<\/span> of<\/span> a collection<\/span> of<\/span> over<\/span> one<\/span> hundred<\/span> estates<\/span> spread<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> various<\/span> regions<\/span> of<\/span> the kingdom.<\/span> These<\/span> estates<\/span> were<\/span> composed<\/span> mainly<\/span> of<\/span> fields<\/span> of<\/span> banana trees and<\/span> thousands<\/span> of<\/span> head<\/span> of<\/span> cattle.<\/span> They formed<\/span> the<\/span> real<\/span> foundation<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> ruler’s<\/span> wealth,<\/span> and<\/span> it was<\/span> between<\/span> these<\/span> many<\/span> different<\/span> estates<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> would<\/span> travel<\/span> with<\/span> his<\/span> entourage<\/span> of<\/span> chiefly<\/span> courtiers<\/span> while<\/span> on<\/span> periodic<\/span> progress<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom.<\/span> The<\/span> greatest<\/span> and<\/span> most<\/span> luxurious<\/span> of<\/span> these estates<\/span> would<\/span> also be<\/span> home to<\/span> one<\/span> of<\/span> the monarch’s<\/span> many<\/span> wives,<\/span> with<\/span> some<\/span> abami<\/span> having <\/span>as many <\/span>as twenty<\/span> at <\/span>a time.<\/span><\/p>\n

Tribute was<\/span> to be<\/span> paid<\/span> to the<\/span> mwami<\/span> by all<\/span> Rwandans,<\/span> Twa, Hutu<\/span> and<\/span> Tutsi,<\/span> and<\/span> was generally<\/span> collected<\/span> by<\/span> Tutsi<\/span> members<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> administration.<\/span> The<\/span> mwami<\/span> was<\/span> also<\/span> assisted<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> governance<\/span> by <\/span>a ministerial<\/span> council<\/span> of<\/span> great<\/span> chiefs,<\/span> known<\/span> as the<\/span> batware<\/span> b’intebe.<\/span> Below<\/span> this<\/span> council<\/span> of<\/span> chiefs<\/span> there<\/span> was<\/span> a lesser group<\/span> of<\/span> Tutsi<\/span> leaders<\/span> who<\/span> were<\/span> charged<\/span> with<\/span> governing<\/span> the<\/span> country<\/span> in<\/span> districts,<\/span> each<\/span> of<\/span> which<\/span> had<\/span> a cattle<\/span> chief<\/span> and<\/span> a land<\/span> chief.<\/span> It was<\/span> the<\/span> cattle<\/span> chief<\/span> who<\/span> collected<\/span> tribute in<\/span> cattle,<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> land<\/span> chief<\/span> collecting<\/span> the<\/span> requisite<\/span> tribute<\/span> in<\/span> produce.<\/span> Further<\/span> down<\/span> the<\/span> ladder<\/span> were<\/span> the hill<\/span> chiefs,<\/span> charged<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> oversight<\/span> of<\/span> a particular<\/span> area<\/span> within<\/span> a district,<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> neighborhood chiefs,<\/span> who<\/span> kept watch<\/span> over the<\/span> smallest<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> localities.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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The frontier regions were overseen by the military chiefs, who were an important element in the security and organization of the nation. Their r\u00f4le was both defensive and offensive, with many military chiefs securing the borders in times of relative calm, while striking out on cattle raids against neighboring tribes under less pacific circumstances. The great chief and the army chief were often one and the same person, and this identification of the military with the nobiliary persisted throughout the history of the kingdom. Finally, the abiru, or guardians of tradition, played an important part in the administration of the mwami, and provided guidance on matters related to the “supernatural powers” of the king, as well as on questions of court ritual and protocol.<\/p>\n

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H.M Yuhi V Musinga at the Royal palace of Nyanza.<\/p>\n

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The kingly power of the mwami was symbolized by the kalinga, a large ceremonial drum frequently decorated with the dried heads and dessicated testicles of vanquished opponents of the royal armies. Rwandan author and historian Benjamin Sehene writes that “an atmosphere of veneration and a grand ceremonial<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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surrounded<\/span> the<\/span> kalinga<\/span> (“token<\/span> of<\/span> hope”),<\/span> which<\/span> was<\/span> kept<\/span> in<\/span> a palace,<\/span> protected<\/span> day<\/span> and<\/span> night<\/span> by <\/span>a special<\/span> guard.” This<\/span> important<\/span> symbol<\/span> was<\/span> painted<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> blood of<\/span> bulls,<\/span> which<\/span> gave<\/span> it<\/span> a reddish-brown<\/span> appearance,<\/span> and<\/span> was<\/span> often<\/span> escorted<\/span> by<\/span> three<\/span> other<\/span> royal<\/span> drums,<\/span> called<\/span> “He<\/span> possesses<\/span> knowledge,”<\/span> “the<\/span> Country<\/span> expands”<\/span> and<\/span> “the<\/span> Nations<\/span> are subject<\/span> to me.” <\/span>If ever the<\/span> kalinga were<\/span> lost<\/span> or<\/span> captured<\/span> in<\/span> battle,<\/span> it<\/span> was universally<\/span> believed<\/span> that<\/span> this<\/span> setback<\/span> would<\/span> certainly<\/span> signal<\/span> disaster<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> entirety<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> nation.<\/span><\/p>\n

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The Karinga.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Such<\/span> was<\/span> the<\/span> nature<\/span> and<\/span> organization<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> independent<\/span> kingdom<\/span> that<\/span> first<\/span> greeted<\/span> the<\/span> eyes<\/span> of<\/span> European<\/span> explorers<\/span> of<\/span> the mid-19th<\/span> century<\/span> when<\/span> they ventured<\/span> into<\/span> the<\/span> region<\/span> of<\/span> Lake<\/span> Victoria<\/span> on their<\/span> quest<\/span> to<\/span> discover the source<\/span> of the <\/span>Nile<\/span> River.<\/span> John<\/span> Hanning<\/span> Speke<\/span> was<\/span> the<\/span> first of<\/span> the<\/span> British<\/span> explorers<\/span> to<\/span> mention<\/span> the<\/span> Kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> writings,<\/span> and<\/span> it<\/span> was<\/span> during<\/span> the<\/span> time<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> great<\/span> Mwami<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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Kigeli<\/span> IV<\/span> Rwabugiri<\/span> (r.<\/span> 1853-1895)<\/span> that<\/span> the nation<\/span> knew<\/span> its<\/span> last<\/span> days<\/span> of<\/span> total<\/span> independence.<\/span> Under<\/span> his<\/span> reign,<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> had<\/span> successfully<\/span> resisted<\/span> the<\/span> incursions of<\/span> the<\/span> Arab<\/span> slave<\/span> traders<\/span> who<\/span> had<\/span> attempted<\/span> to penetrate<\/span> the<\/span> interior<\/span> in<\/span> search<\/span> of<\/span> human<\/span> grist<\/span> for<\/span> their<\/span> satanic<\/span> mills,<\/span> and<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> IV was<\/span> himself<\/span> the<\/span> first<\/span> mwami<\/span> to ever<\/span> set<\/span> eyes<\/span> upon<\/span> a European<\/span> within<\/span> the<\/span> confines<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> formerly secluded<\/span> kingdom.<\/span><\/p>\n

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<\/p>\n

A Portrait<\/span> of<\/span> H.M.<\/span> King<\/span> Kigeli <\/span>IV<\/span> Rwabugiri<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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Kigeli<\/span> IV<\/span> Rwabugiri<\/span> is<\/span> considered <\/span>to have been<\/span> one of the<\/span> very<\/span> greatest<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> abami,<\/span> despite<\/span> a considerable<\/span> reputation<\/span> for<\/span> harshness<\/span> in<\/span> dealings<\/span> with<\/span> his<\/span> subjects.<\/span> His<\/span> strict<\/span> administration<\/span> imposed<\/span> a draconian<\/span> regime<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> once<\/span> semi-<\/span> independent<\/span> Tutsi<\/span> and<\/span> Hutu<\/span> chieftains<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> hinterland,<\/span> frequently<\/span> confiscating<\/span> their<\/span> holdings<\/span> and<\/span> eventually<\/span> breaking<\/span> their<\/span> political<\/span> power<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> country.<\/span> He<\/span> also<\/span> established<\/span> a more<\/span> modern<\/span> army,<\/span> one that<\/span> was equipped<\/span> with<\/span> guns,<\/span> and<\/span> which<\/span> successfully<\/span> blocked<\/span> most<\/span> foreigners<\/span> from<\/span> entering<\/span> the<\/span> tiny<\/span> state<\/span> during<\/span> the<\/span> greater<\/span> part<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> reign.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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In<\/span> the<\/span> domain<\/span> of<\/span> socio-political<\/span> engineering,<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> IV<\/span> relied<\/span> on<\/span> a number<\/span> of<\/span> feudal<\/span> structures,<\/span> such<\/span> as the<\/span> uburetwa<\/span> (“labor<\/span> for<\/span> land”)<\/span> system,<\/span> which<\/span> was somewhat<\/span> analogous<\/span> to the<\/span> institution<\/span> of<\/span> serfdom<\/span> practiced<\/span> in<\/span> medieval<\/span> Europe.<\/span> Although<\/span> his<\/span> reign<\/span> officially began<\/span> in<\/span> 1853,<\/span> it<\/span> was not until<\/span> 1860 that<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> IV<\/span> Rwabugiri<\/span> managed<\/span> to<\/span> unite<\/span> all<\/span> parts<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda under<\/span> his<\/span> strong,<\/span> centralized<\/span> rule.<\/span> Despite<\/span> the<\/span> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>fiercely<\/span> independent<\/span> spirit<\/span> of<\/span> its<\/span> monarch, Rwanda<\/span> fell<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> control<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> German<\/span> East<\/span> Africa<\/span> Company<\/span> by<\/span> an act<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Berlin<\/span> International<\/span> Conference<\/span> of<\/span> 1884-85.<\/span> The<\/span> regions<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda and<\/span> Urundi were<\/span> ceded<\/span> to<\/span> Germany<\/span> as colonial<\/span> spheres<\/span> of<\/span> interest,<\/span> and<\/span> it was<\/span> during<\/span> the<\/span> final<\/span> year of<\/span> Kigeli’s long<\/span> reign<\/span> that<\/span> a caravan<\/span> of<\/span> over<\/span> six<\/span> hundred<\/span> men,<\/span> led<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> German<\/span> Count<\/span> von<\/span> G\u00f6tzen,<\/span> finally<\/span> penetrated<\/span> the<\/span> borders<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom.<\/span><\/p>\n

On<\/span> May<\/span> 29,<\/span> 1894,<\/span> Count<\/span> von<\/span> G\u00f6tzen<\/span> was<\/span> received<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> in<\/span> person<\/span> while<\/span> the<\/span> Royal<\/span> Court of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> was<\/span> in<\/span> residence at<\/span> Kageyo,<\/span> near the<\/span> present-day<\/span> town<\/span> of<\/span> Gisenyi.<\/span> The<\/span> German<\/span> soldiers<\/span> organized<\/span> military<\/span> parades<\/span> and<\/span> demonstrations<\/span> of<\/span> marksmanship, <\/span>as well<\/span> as a display<\/span> of<\/span> fireworks.<\/span> For<\/span> his<\/span> part,<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> made<\/span> a valuable<\/span> gift<\/span> of<\/span> livestock<\/span> to the<\/span> foreign<\/span> visitors, and<\/span> appeared<\/span> to be<\/span> moderately<\/span> pleased<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> encounter.<\/span> What <\/span>he <\/span>could<\/span> not<\/span> know,<\/span> however,<\/span> was that<\/span> this<\/span> meeting<\/span> would<\/span> mark<\/span> the<\/span> beginning<\/span> of<\/span> a painful<\/span> and<\/span> tremendously<\/span> difficult<\/span> century<\/span> for<\/span> his<\/span> formerly<\/span> isolated<\/span> kingdom,<\/span> a century<\/span> that<\/span> would<\/span> see<\/span> her<\/span> increasingly<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> defensive<\/span> against<\/span> a carefully<\/span> planned<\/span> and<\/span> minutely<\/span> coordinated<\/span> takeover<\/span> by<\/span> European<\/span> rulers<\/span> whose<\/span> domains<\/span> lay<\/span> thousands<\/span> of<\/span> miles<\/span> away<\/span> from<\/span> the sacred<\/span> enclosure<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> simple palace.<\/span> Unknown<\/span> to Kigeli<\/span> and<\/span> his<\/span> abiru,<\/span> the<\/span> Rubicon<\/span> had<\/span> been<\/span> crossed,<\/span> and sadly<\/span> there <\/span>was soon<\/span> to be<\/span> no reasonable<\/span> hope of <\/span>a safe return.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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Beneath<\/span> the<\/span> Banner<\/span> of<\/span> Christ<\/span> the King:<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> Abami<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Colonial<\/span> Era<\/span> (ca.<\/span> 1895-1959)<\/span><\/p>\n

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Within<\/span> a year<\/span> after<\/span> the<\/span> arrival<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> German<\/span> explorers<\/span> at<\/span> Kageyo,<\/span> the<\/span> great<\/span> Mwami<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> IV<\/span> Rwabugiri<\/span> had died,<\/span> and<\/span> had<\/span> been<\/span> succeeded<\/span> by one of<\/span> his sons,<\/span> who<\/span> had<\/span> been<\/span> chosen<\/span> by<\/span> the abiru according <\/span>to time-honored<\/span> custom, and<\/span> who<\/span> reigned<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> name<\/span> Mibambwe<\/span> IV<\/span> Rutarindwa.<\/span> There<\/span> was<\/span> intense<\/span> dissatisfaction at court,<\/span> however,<\/span> as the<\/span> new monarch<\/span> was not considered<\/span> to be<\/span> an entirely<\/span> suitable<\/span> choice,<\/span> particularly<\/span> at a time<\/span> when<\/span> foreign<\/span> encroachment<\/span> on<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> soil<\/span> loomed<\/span> large<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> socio-political<\/span> landscape.<\/span><\/p>\n

Consequently,<\/span> the<\/span> reign<\/span> of<\/span> Mibambwe <\/span>IV was not<\/span> a long one,<\/span> and<\/span> he was<\/span> duly<\/span> replaced<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> throne in<\/span> 1896<\/span> by Yuhi<\/span> V Musinga<\/span> (r.<\/span> 1896-1931),<\/span> another<\/span> of<\/span> Mwami<\/span> Kigeli’s<\/span> sons<\/span> by<\/span> his<\/span> wife<\/span> Kanyogera<\/span> (Nyirajuhi<\/span> V),<\/span> in<\/span> what<\/span> has<\/span> come<\/span> to<\/span> be<\/span> known<\/span> as the Coup<\/span> d’Etat<\/span> of<\/span> Rucunshu.<\/span> In accordance<\/span> with<\/span> Rwandan royal<\/span> tradition, the<\/span> ousted<\/span> king <\/span>was put<\/span> to death<\/span> for the<\/span> benefit<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation, the<\/span> kalinga<\/span> was presented<\/span> to the new<\/span> monarch<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> supreme authority<\/span> passed<\/span> naturally<\/span> into<\/span> the<\/span> hands of the successor designated by<\/span> the abiru.<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> new<\/span> mwami,<\/span> Yuhi<\/span> Musinga,<\/span> born<\/span> in<\/span> 1883,<\/span> was a far more<\/span> congenial<\/span> choice<\/span> for the majority<\/span> of the Rwandan<\/span> Royal<\/span> Court,<\/span> and<\/span> as a result,<\/span> under<\/span> the regency<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> mother and<\/span> her<\/span> brother,<\/span> Kabare,<\/span> the young<\/span> king quickly<\/span> consolidated<\/span> his<\/span> power<\/span> base<\/span> within<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom.<\/span> At this<\/span> critical<\/span> juncture<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> history<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation,<\/span> the<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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leaders moved quickly to strengthen the structures of the state, primarily in an effort to neutralize the increasing incursions made on national sovereignty by the German colonial machine. Despite minor disturbances in a few isolated regions of the country, including the illegal installation of a “mwami in rebellion,” Ndungtse, from 1911 to 1912, Mwami Yuhi reigned steadily and wisely over his kingdom, maintaining a firm hand on the reins of power throughout the early decades of his sovereignty.<\/p>\n

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\u00a0H.M Mwami Yuhi V Musinga<\/p>\n

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Over the years, the promising young king grew into an impressive and eminently royal figure, his demeanor exuding a mixture of stern authority and fatherly benevolence. Photos of the monarch from this period show him to have been a<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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commanding<\/span> presence,<\/span> one<\/span> who<\/span> is<\/span> clearly<\/span> at<\/span> the<\/span> center<\/span> of<\/span> attention<\/span> in<\/span> all<\/span> his<\/span> doings,<\/span> and<\/span> yet<\/span> one<\/span> who<\/span> is<\/span> strangely sympathetic<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> majesty.<\/span> Backed<\/span> by his<\/span> regents<\/span> and<\/span> abiru,<\/span> the<\/span> monarch<\/span> did<\/span> his<\/span> best<\/span> to<\/span> stem<\/span> the<\/span> increasingly<\/span> strong tide<\/span> of<\/span> demands<\/span> made<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> German<\/span> colonial<\/span> powers,<\/span> but<\/span> also<\/span> came<\/span> to<\/span> realize<\/span> that<\/span> in<\/span> matters<\/span> of<\/span> military<\/span> technology<\/span> and<\/span> mechanized<\/span> warfare,<\/span> as well<\/span> as in<\/span> sheer<\/span> deceitfulness,<\/span> the<\/span> foreign<\/span> interlopers<\/span> clearly<\/span> held<\/span> the<\/span> upper<\/span> hand.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Mwami<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Yuhi<\/span><\/i> <\/i>V Musinga<\/span> with<\/span> Members<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Royal<\/span> Court<\/span> of Rwanda<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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Thus were<\/span> born<\/span> a number of<\/span> the concessions<\/span> made<\/span> to the German<\/span> authorities<\/span> over the<\/span> course<\/span> of the<\/span> years,<\/span> some<\/span> of which<\/span> were<\/span> to bear<\/span> bitter<\/span> fruit in<\/span> the<\/span> decades<\/span> to<\/span> come.<\/span> In 1899,<\/span> the<\/span> Mwami<\/span> officially recognized<\/span> the<\/span> German<\/span> “protectorate,”<\/span> known<\/span> as<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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Deutsch-Ostafrika,<\/span> and<\/span> in<\/span> 1900 reluctantly<\/span> consented<\/span> to the<\/span> foundation<\/span> of<\/span> a Catholic<\/span> monastery at<\/span> Save,<\/span> which<\/span> was<\/span> run<\/span> by the<\/span> Order<\/span> of<\/span> the White<\/span> Fathers,<\/span> and<\/span> which<\/span> effectively<\/span> opened<\/span> the<\/span> door <\/span>to the<\/span> eventual<\/span> conversion<\/span> of<\/span> most of<\/span> the<\/span> country<\/span> to the<\/span> Roman<\/span> Catholic<\/span> faith.<\/span> Despite<\/span> the<\/span> myriad<\/span> spiritual<\/span> and<\/span> practical<\/span> benefits<\/span> brought<\/span> about<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> introduction<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> faith<\/span> of<\/span> Christ<\/span> into<\/span> his<\/span> domains,<\/span> Mwami<\/span> Yuhi<\/span> Musinga<\/span> remained<\/span> deeply<\/span> suspicious<\/span> of<\/span> European<\/span> missionaries<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> entirety<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> reign,<\/span> and<\/span> viewed<\/span> their activities<\/span> as largely aimed<\/span> at<\/span> eroding<\/span> his<\/span> supreme<\/span> royal<\/span> authority<\/span> at a time<\/span> when<\/span> that<\/span> authority<\/span> was already<\/span> under<\/span> considerable<\/span> attack<\/span> by<\/span> growing<\/span> waves<\/span> of<\/span> colonial<\/span> opportunists.<\/span><\/p>\n

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\u00a0Yuhi V Musinga with th White Fathers Missionaries<\/p>\n

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In 1908, the German Resident, Richard Kandt, a sort of “overseer” of the colonial protectorate, established his headquarters at Kigali (present-day capital of the Republic of Rwanda), and this move ultimately inspired the quasi-permanent establishment of the Royal Court of Rwanda at Nyanza, which quickly became the epicenter of the Rwandan administrative system. The mwami inhabited a noble and spacious enclosure, the confines of which were considered to be “sacred ground” by his many faithful subjects.<\/p>\n

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H.M.<\/i> <\/i>Queen<\/i> <\/i>Kankazi,<\/i> Mother of Mutara III Rudahigwa<\/i><\/p>\n

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The month of March, 1913, saw a joyous event in the birth of a son (and eventual heir) to Mwami Yuhi V Musinga, but within the coming year, troubling developments<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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in<\/span> Europe<\/span> would<\/span> come to<\/span> overshadow<\/span> the<\/span> personal<\/span> happiness of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> monarch.<\/span> Increasing<\/span> political<\/span> tensions among<\/span> several<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> European<\/span> powers,<\/span> coupled<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> assassination<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Austrian<\/span> Archduke<\/span> Franz<\/span> Ferdinand<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> summer<\/span> of<\/span> 1914, quickly<\/span> led<\/span> to<\/span> an almost universal<\/span> declaration<\/span> of<\/span> war<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> Continent<\/span> in<\/span> August<\/span> of<\/span> that<\/span> fateful<\/span> year.<\/span> Franz<\/span> Ferdinand,<\/span> nephew<\/span> of<\/span> Franz<\/span> Josef,<\/span> the<\/span> reigning<\/span> Emperor<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Austro-Hungarian<\/span> Empire,<\/span> had<\/span> been<\/span> shot<\/span> in<\/span> Sarajevo,<\/span> Serbia,<\/span> by<\/span> a young<\/span> Serbian<\/span> nationalist,<\/span> Gavrilo<\/span> Princip, and<\/span> the<\/span> resultant<\/span> tension<\/span> created<\/span> by this<\/span> act drew<\/span> the<\/span> majority<\/span> of<\/span> European<\/span> nations<\/span> into<\/span> the<\/span> first epic<\/span> conflict<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> 20th<\/span> century.<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> immediate<\/span> result of<\/span> this<\/span> conflict<\/span> on<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda was<\/span> the<\/span> invasion<\/span> of<\/span> its<\/span> territory<\/span> by<\/span> Belgian<\/span> troops,<\/span> in<\/span> direct<\/span> and<\/span> flagrant<\/span> violation<\/span> of<\/span> treaty<\/span> agreements<\/span> previously<\/span> established<\/span> to shield<\/span> the<\/span> African<\/span> protectorates<\/span> from<\/span> just<\/span> this<\/span> sort<\/span> of<\/span> aggression.<\/span> Yuhi <\/span>V Musinga,<\/span> caught<\/span> in<\/span> a crossfire<\/span> between<\/span> the<\/span> Germans<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians,<\/span> reluctantly<\/span> threw<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> lot <\/span>with<\/span> the<\/span> forces<\/span> of<\/span> Kaiser<\/span> Wilhelm<\/span> II, with<\/span> whose<\/span> emissaries<\/span> he<\/span> already<\/span> had<\/span> a long-standing,<\/span> if<\/span> somewhat<\/span> unequal<\/span> relationship.<\/span><\/p>\n

Thousands<\/span> of<\/span> Rwandans<\/span> were<\/span> killed<\/span> in <\/span>a variety<\/span> of<\/span> battles,<\/span> and<\/span> Yuhi’s<\/span> efforts<\/span> to minimize<\/span> the<\/span> effects<\/span> on<\/span> his<\/span> kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> this<\/span> almost<\/span> universal<\/span> conflagration,<\/span> entirely<\/span> the<\/span> making<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> foreign<\/span> powers,<\/span> were sadly<\/span> futile.<\/span> By 1916,<\/span> however,<\/span> Belgian<\/span> troops<\/span> had<\/span> emerged<\/span> victorious<\/span> over<\/span> German<\/span> colonial<\/span> forces,<\/span> and<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> was<\/span> effectively<\/span> at the<\/span> mercy of<\/span> yet<\/span> another<\/span> European<\/span> power.<\/span><\/p>\n

With<\/span> the<\/span> catastrophic<\/span> disturbances<\/span> engendered<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> protracted<\/span> hostilities,<\/span> famine<\/span> was widespread<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> country<\/span> for<\/span> the entirety<\/span> of<\/span> the war,<\/span> and<\/span> when<\/span> the<\/span> conflict<\/span> had<\/span> ended,<\/span> the Treaty of<\/span> Versailles<\/span> of<\/span> 1919<\/span> officially<\/span> conferred<\/span> a mandate<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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over<\/span> the<\/span> nations<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda and<\/span> Burundi<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> Kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Belgium.<\/span> This act was<\/span> further<\/span> confirmed<\/span> by<\/span> a decision of<\/span> the<\/span> League<\/span> of<\/span> Nations<\/span> in<\/span> 1923, which<\/span> permitted<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> occupiers<\/span> to administer<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> as a colonial<\/span> protectorate.<\/span> Yuhi<\/span> V Musinga<\/span> retained<\/span> his<\/span> throne,<\/span> however,<\/span> as the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> authorities<\/span> recognized<\/span> that<\/span> it<\/span> was far more<\/span> prudent<\/span> to try to rule<\/span> the<\/span> country<\/span> through<\/span> him<\/span> than<\/span> to<\/span> attempt<\/span> to impose<\/span> a r\u00e9gime<\/span> of<\/span> direct<\/span> foreign<\/span> rule.<\/span> For<\/span> his<\/span> part,<\/span> the<\/span> mwami,<\/span> effectively<\/span> powerless<\/span> to resist<\/span> the<\/span> will<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> increasingly<\/span> demanding<\/span> Europeans,<\/span> endeavored<\/span> to retain<\/span> as much<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> royal<\/span> prestige<\/span> and<\/span> authority <\/span>as possible, and<\/span> to<\/span> somehow<\/span> shield<\/span> his<\/span> people<\/span> from<\/span> the<\/span> harsh<\/span> realities<\/span> of<\/span> foreign<\/span> control.<\/span><\/p>\n

As Belgium<\/span> was<\/span> also<\/span> a deeply<\/span> Roman<\/span> Catholic<\/span> nation,<\/span> however,<\/span> there<\/span> were<\/span> \u00a0<\/span>several<\/span> aspects<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> situation<\/span> which<\/span> were <\/span>to prove<\/span> a great boon<\/span> to the spiritual<\/span> life<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda.<\/span> Conversions<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> people<\/span> to Catholicism<\/span> continued<\/span> at<\/span> a healthy rate,<\/span> and<\/span> several<\/span> schools<\/span> were<\/span> established<\/span> by<\/span> the Church<\/span> to further educate<\/span> the<\/span> growing<\/span> population<\/span> of<\/span> Christian<\/span> faithful.<\/span> The<\/span> modernization<\/span> and<\/span> expansion<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> infrastructure<\/span> also<\/span> moved<\/span> firmly<\/span> ahead<\/span> under<\/span> Belgian<\/span> tutelage,<\/span> providing the<\/span> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>means<\/span> to join<\/span> once-remote<\/span> areas<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> country<\/span> to its<\/span> administrative<\/span> centers,<\/span> thus<\/span> fostering <\/span>a greater sense of<\/span> national<\/span> unity,<\/span> even<\/span> under the<\/span> watchful<\/span> eye<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> foreign<\/span> authorities. <\/span>The<\/span> French language<\/span> was<\/span> introduced<\/span> in<\/span> schools<\/span> and<\/span> soon<\/span> came<\/span> to occupy<\/span> an<\/span> important<\/span> place<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> public<\/span> life of<\/span> the<\/span> nation,<\/span> as did<\/span> Roman<\/span> Catholic<\/span> culture<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> veneration<\/span> of<\/span> Christian<\/span> saints,<\/span> both<\/span> of<\/span> which<\/span> were<\/span> widespread<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> early<\/span> 1930s.<\/span><\/p>\n

Many<\/span> of<\/span> these<\/span> innovations did<\/span> not<\/span> sit<\/span> well<\/span> at all,<\/span> however,<\/span> with<\/span> the more<\/span> traditional<\/span> elements<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> Royal<\/span> Court,<\/span> and<\/span> Mwami<\/span> Yuhi<\/span> Musinga<\/span> himself<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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resolutely<\/span> refused<\/span> to be<\/span> baptized<\/span> a Roman<\/span> Catholic.<\/span> In<\/span> fact,<\/span> there<\/span> exists<\/span> a letter<\/span> from<\/span> the<\/span> great king to<\/span> one<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> daughters,<\/span> in<\/span> which<\/span> he<\/span> excoriates<\/span> her most<\/span> vehemently<\/span> for<\/span> converting<\/span> to<\/span> Christianity.<\/span> During<\/span> the<\/span> course<\/span> of<\/span> this<\/span> rather<\/span> lengthy<\/span> missive,<\/span> he<\/span> bitterly<\/span> calls<\/span> down<\/span> imprecations<\/span> on<\/span> her,<\/span> stating<\/span> at one<\/span> point that<\/span> he<\/span> would<\/span> summon<\/span> the<\/span> “Thunder God<\/span> of<\/span> our<\/span> ancestors<\/span> to<\/span> strike [her]<\/span> down<\/span> as a punishment.”<\/span><\/p>\n

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T.M.<\/span><\/i> <\/i>King<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Mutara<\/span><\/i> <\/i>III<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Rudahigwa<\/span><\/i> <\/i>and<\/span><\/i> Queen<\/span> Rosalie<\/span> Gicanda<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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The<\/span> growing<\/span> tensions<\/span> between<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> colonial<\/span> authorities<\/span> came<\/span> to a head<\/span> on<\/span> November<\/span> 12, 1931,<\/span> when<\/span> he <\/span>was suddenly and<\/span> summarily deposed by the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> powers,<\/span> supposedly<\/span> because<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> inability<\/span> to<\/span> cooperate<\/span> with<\/span> his<\/span> subordinate<\/span> chiefs,<\/span> but<\/span> also<\/span> as a direct<\/span> result<\/span> of his staunch<\/span> refusal<\/span> to<\/span> adopt<\/span> the<\/span> Roman<\/span> Catholic<\/span> faith.<\/span> He<\/span> was<\/span> immediately<\/span> replaced<\/span> by<\/span> his<\/span> son,<\/span> who<\/span> was<\/span> to<\/span> reign<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> name<\/span> of<\/span> Mutara<\/span> III Rudahigwa until<\/span> his<\/span> death<\/span> in<\/span> 1959.<\/span> Yuhi<\/span> Musinga<\/span> was exiled<\/span> to Kamembe,<\/span> near the<\/span> border<\/span> of the Congo,<\/span> where <\/span>he<\/span> eventually<\/span> died in<\/span> 1944.<\/span><\/p>\n

Mutara<\/span> III Rudahigwa<\/span> was<\/span> a man<\/span> of<\/span> an entirely<\/span> different<\/span> stripe<\/span> from<\/span> his<\/span> sometimes<\/span> austere<\/span> and<\/span> decidedly<\/span> more<\/span> traditionalist<\/span> father.<\/span> Also<\/span> possessed<\/span> of<\/span> a regal<\/span> and<\/span> commanding presence,<\/span> he was<\/span> a Roman<\/span> Catholic<\/span> catechumen,<\/span> and<\/span> had<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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been<\/span> educated<\/span> in<\/span> mission schools.<\/span> He<\/span> was crowned<\/span> King of<\/span> Rwanda on<\/span> November<\/span> 16<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> same year,<\/span> and<\/span> was soon<\/span> to win<\/span> the<\/span> genuine<\/span> respect<\/span> and<\/span> admiration,<\/span> both<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> own<\/span> people<\/span> and<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> foreign<\/span> authorities.<\/span> At the<\/span> same<\/span> time,<\/span> however,<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> colonial<\/span> administration<\/span> undertook<\/span> to further<\/span> divide<\/span> and<\/span> dominate<\/span> the<\/span> local<\/span> populations<\/span> through<\/span> a practice<\/span> of<\/span> racial<\/span> identification,<\/span> eventually<\/span> imposing in<\/span> the<\/span> 1930s<\/span> the<\/span> use<\/span> of<\/span> ID<\/span> cards<\/span> artificially<\/span> designating<\/span> citizens<\/span> as either<\/span> Tutsi,<\/span> Hutu<\/span> or<\/span> Twa.<\/span> The<\/span> introduction<\/span> of<\/span> this<\/span> device into<\/span> the<\/span> organic<\/span> and<\/span> largely<\/span> harmonious<\/span> social<\/span> fabric<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Banyarwanda would<\/span> come<\/span> to have<\/span> hateful<\/span> and<\/span> disastrous<\/span> consequences<\/span> in<\/span> the coming decades, and<\/span> would<\/span> eventually<\/span> lead<\/span> directly to<\/span> one<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> greatest<\/span> crimes<\/span> against<\/span> humanity<\/span> committed<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> 20th<\/span> century.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Mwami Mutara lll Rudahigwa and King Baudoin of Belgium.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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The<\/span> ever-popular<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> monarch, more<\/span> and<\/span> more<\/span> committed<\/span> to<\/span> his<\/span> growing<\/span> faith<\/span> in<\/span> Christ,<\/span> and<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> performance<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> sacred<\/span> duty <\/span>as mwami,<\/span> celebrated<\/span> his<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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marriage<\/span> to<\/span> a beautiful<\/span> young<\/span> Christian<\/span> Rwandan,<\/span> Rosalie<\/span> Gicanda,<\/span> on<\/span> January<\/span> 13,<\/span> 1942.<\/span> On<\/span> October<\/span> 17<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> following<\/span> year,<\/span> Mwami<\/span> Mutara<\/span> III Rudahigwa,<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> sponsorship<\/span> of<\/span> Belgian<\/span> Governor<\/span> General<\/span> Pierre<\/span> Rycksmans,<\/span> became<\/span> the<\/span> first<\/span> king<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> ever<\/span> to be<\/span> baptized<\/span> a Roman<\/span> Catholic<\/span> Christian.<\/span> He<\/span> took<\/span> the<\/span> baptismal<\/span> names<\/span> of<\/span> Charles-L\u00e9on-Pierre,<\/span> and<\/span> was<\/span> followed<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> full<\/span> conversion by the<\/span> vast<\/span> majority<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> chiefs<\/span> and<\/span> sub-chiefs,<\/span> who<\/span> were<\/span> also<\/span> consecrated<\/span> to faith<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> Lord,<\/span> and<\/span> who<\/span> in<\/span> turn<\/span> helped<\/span> spread<\/span> further<\/span> the Gospel<\/span> of<\/span> Christ<\/span> throughout the<\/span> nation.<\/span><\/p>\n

Firmly<\/span> committed<\/span> to<\/span> social<\/span> justice,<\/span> in<\/span> 1945<\/span> King<\/span> Mutara<\/span> called<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> abolition<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> feudal<\/span> land<\/span> system<\/span> known<\/span> as the ubuhake,<\/span> which<\/span> he<\/span> characterized<\/span> as “unfair,”<\/span> and<\/span> which<\/span> was<\/span> eventually<\/span> eliminated<\/span> completely<\/span> in<\/span> 1954.<\/span> He<\/span> further<\/span> insisted<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> colonial<\/span> administration<\/span> reluctantly<\/span> accept<\/span> the<\/span> abolition<\/span> of<\/span> unpaid<\/span> labor<\/span> on<\/span> public<\/span> works<\/span> projects,<\/span> most<\/span> frequently<\/span> executed<\/span> under physical<\/span> duress. Although<\/span> resisted<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> foreign<\/span> machine,<\/span> this<\/span> move<\/span> was universally<\/span> popular<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> land,<\/span> and<\/span> led<\/span> to an even<\/span> greater appreciation<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> efforts<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> to relieve<\/span> the<\/span> burdens<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> people.<\/span><\/p>\n

Spurred<\/span> by<\/span> his<\/span> strong faith<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> teachings<\/span> of<\/span> Jesus,<\/span> on<\/span> October<\/span> 27, 1946,<\/span> H.M.<\/span> Mwami<\/span> Mutara<\/span> III Rudahigwa<\/span> officially consecrated<\/span> the<\/span> Kingdom<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> to Christ<\/span> the<\/span> King,<\/span> further<\/span> cementing<\/span> its<\/span> ties<\/span> to<\/span> both<\/span> the<\/span> Church<\/span> and<\/span> to the<\/span> worldwide<\/span> community<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> faithful.<\/span> Earlier<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> same<\/span> year,<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> had<\/span> become <\/span>a territory<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> supervision<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> United<\/span> Nations,<\/span> despite<\/span> the<\/span> continued<\/span> presence<\/span> and<\/span> direct<\/span> control of<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians. Further inspired<\/span> by his<\/span> deep<\/span> faith<\/span> in<\/span> Christ,<\/span> in<\/span> 1949<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> declared<\/span> his<\/span> strong opposition to<\/span> the<\/span> chicote,<\/span> or<\/span> public<\/span> corporal<\/span> punishment<\/span> of<\/span> adult<\/span> males,<\/span> who<\/span> were<\/span> frequently<\/span> beaten<\/span> by<\/span> colonial<\/span> authorities<\/span> in<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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the presence of their families. This move caused great discontent among the Belgian administration, who increasingly began to worry about potential effects of the growing regional and international prestige of the popular monarch.<\/p>\n

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Informal<\/i> Portrait of Mutara III Rudahigwa<\/i><\/p>\n

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In 1955, the King of Belgium named seasoned administrator Jean-Paul Harroy Governor General of Rwanda-Urundi. The growing tension between the mwami, who was firmly determined to follow his conscience as a devout Christian and to right the wrongs largely imposed by the foreign occupiers, made a showdown increasingly inevitable, if not ultimately desirable. In 1956, Mwami Mutara officially demanded of the United Nations a swift end to the Belgian occupation, as well as total independence for his tiny kingdom. In addition, the Supreme Council of Rwanda requested that chiefs and sub-chiefs thenceforth be chosen by election, rather than by royal appointment. This demand was later repeated at the beginning of 1959, at the same time as a further request for a precise timetable for the accession of the<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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country<\/span> to full<\/span> independence<\/span> and<\/span> autonomy.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Ladies<\/span><\/i> of <\/span>the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> Royal<\/span> Court<\/span> of<\/span> Mutara<\/span> III<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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Although<\/span> many recognized<\/span> the<\/span> growing<\/span> severity of<\/span> the<\/span> rift<\/span> that had<\/span> developed<\/span> between<\/span> the<\/span> Mwami,<\/span> resolutely<\/span> dedicated<\/span> to furthering<\/span> the<\/span> welfare<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> people<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> sacred<\/span> banner of<\/span> Christ the<\/span> King, and<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians,<\/span> eager to<\/span> retain<\/span> their<\/span> hold on<\/span> the physical resources<\/span> of the<\/span> nation, few<\/span> could<\/span> have<\/span> foreseen<\/span> the<\/span> extent<\/span> and<\/span> consequences<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> drama<\/span> that<\/span> was to be<\/span> played<\/span> out<\/span> in<\/span> July<\/span> of<\/span> 1959.<\/span> On Friday,<\/span> July<\/span> 24,<\/span> 1959,<\/span> King<\/span> Mutara<\/span> traveled<\/span> to Usumbura,<\/span> from<\/span> whence<\/span> he<\/span> planned<\/span> eventually <\/span>to journey<\/span> to New<\/span> York<\/span> to put<\/span> the<\/span> case for<\/span> Rwandan independence<\/span> before<\/span> the<\/span> United<\/span> Nations.<\/span> The<\/span> day<\/span> after<\/span> his<\/span> arrival<\/span> there,<\/span> the<\/span> mwami<\/span> requested<\/span> a shot of<\/span> penicillin<\/span> from<\/span> Dr.<\/span> Vinck,<\/span> a Belgian<\/span> stand-in<\/span> for<\/span> his<\/span> his<\/span> personal<\/span> physician,<\/span> whom<\/span> he<\/span> had<\/span> seen<\/span> earlier<\/span> in<\/span> the day.<\/span> The<\/span> doctor administered<\/span> a dose of<\/span> about<\/span> 1 million<\/span> units<\/span> of<\/span> megacillin, and<\/span> during the<\/span> course of<\/span> a brief<\/span> conversation<\/span> with<\/span> Vinck<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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following<\/span> the shot,<\/span> the King collapsed<\/span> and<\/span> died, apparently<\/span> struck down<\/span> by <\/span>a massive<\/span> cerebral<\/span> hemorrhage.<\/span><\/p>\n

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T.M.<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Queens<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Kankezi<\/span><\/i> <\/i>and<\/span><\/i> Rosalie<\/span> Gicanda<\/span> at<\/span> the<\/span> Funeral<\/span> of Mutara<\/span> III<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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Despite<\/span> claims<\/span> that<\/span> this<\/span> tragic<\/span> event<\/span> was<\/span> the<\/span> result of<\/span> some<\/span> kind<\/span> of<\/span> medical<\/span> anomaly,<\/span> many<\/span> believed<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> increasingly<\/span> troublesome<\/span> mwami<\/span> had<\/span> simply<\/span> been<\/span> eliminated<\/span> under<\/span> orders<\/span> from<\/span> Brussels<\/span> by<\/span> means<\/span> of<\/span> a foul<\/span> assassination<\/span> rather<\/span> thinly<\/span> disguised<\/span> as a clinical<\/span> “accident.”<\/span> This<\/span> hypothesis<\/span> is<\/span> further<\/span> strengthened<\/span> by<\/span> testimony<\/span> from<\/span> his<\/span> half-brother<\/span> and<\/span> successor,<\/span> H.M. Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa,<\/span> who<\/span> affirms<\/span> that Mutara “wanted<\/span> to go to New<\/span> York,<\/span> to ask<\/span> the<\/span> UN to grant<\/span> full<\/span> independence<\/span> to Rwanda.<\/span> In Usumbura,<\/span> where <\/span>a replacement<\/span> for his<\/span> usual<\/span> physician had<\/span> given<\/span> him<\/span> an injection<\/span> before<\/span> the<\/span> voyage,<\/span> he<\/span> collapsed<\/span> upon<\/span> leaving<\/span> the<\/span> medical office.<\/span> Shock,<\/span> infection,<\/span> heart<\/span> attack? <\/span>We <\/span>are<\/span> assured<\/span> that it was<\/span> an<\/span> accident,<\/span> but<\/span> I know that<\/span> my brother<\/span> had<\/span> never<\/span> been<\/span> sick,<\/span> and<\/span> that<\/span> no<\/span> autopsy<\/span> was<\/span> ever<\/span> performed.”<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> nation<\/span> was<\/span> devastated.<\/span> Deep<\/span> mourning spread<\/span> throughout the<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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land<\/span> of<\/span> the Banyarwanda, and<\/span> the<\/span> sudden and<\/span> unforeseen<\/span> disappearance of<\/span> this<\/span> great<\/span> mwami,<\/span> truly<\/span> a shepherd<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> people,<\/span> struck<\/span> savagely into<\/span> the<\/span> psycho-<\/span> emotional<\/span> heart<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> grieving<\/span> population.<\/span> Equally<\/span> tragic<\/span> was<\/span> the<\/span> fact<\/span> that<\/span> this<\/span> hero<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> people<\/span> had<\/span> passed<\/span> away<\/span> with<\/span> no<\/span> male<\/span> descendants,<\/span> thus<\/span> leaving<\/span> the matter<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> succession<\/span> an open question.<\/span> Thus began <\/span>a race<\/span> against<\/span> time and<\/span> circumstances,<\/span> bravely<\/span> sustained<\/span> to ensure<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> sorrowing<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> homeland<\/span> should<\/span> not<\/span> fall<\/span> even<\/span> further<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> control<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> administration<\/span> at<\/span> this<\/span> critical<\/span> juncture<\/span> in<\/span> her<\/span> history.<\/span> Providence,<\/span> favoring<\/span> the<\/span> right<\/span> over<\/span> the<\/span> might,<\/span> would<\/span> supply<\/span> a genuine blessing<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> person<\/span> of<\/span> her<\/span> next ruler,<\/span> but<\/span> his<\/span> ability<\/span> to positively<\/span> influence<\/span> events<\/span> in<\/span> this<\/span> increasingly<\/span> fragile<\/span> kingdom would<\/span> be<\/span> tragically<\/span> short-lived.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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Not<\/span> For<\/span> the<\/span> Power,<\/span> But<\/span> For<\/span> the People:<\/span> The<\/span> Reign<\/span> of<\/span> H.M.<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V (1959-<\/span> )<\/p>\n

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The<\/span> stunning loss of<\/span> their<\/span> beloved<\/span> mwami<\/span> left<\/span> the people<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> shocked and<\/span> grief-stricken.<\/span> Even<\/span> as the<\/span> nation<\/span> mourned<\/span> however,<\/span> the abiru,<\/span> who<\/span> had<\/span> not<\/span> not<\/span> been<\/span> called<\/span> upon<\/span> to order the royal<\/span> succession<\/span> since the<\/span> days<\/span> of Yuhi<\/span> V Musinga,<\/span> made<\/span> hasty<\/span> preparations<\/span> to proclaim<\/span> the<\/span> accession <\/span>to the throne<\/span> of<\/span> a new<\/span> mwami.<\/span><\/p>\n

Sensing<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> colonial<\/span> authorities<\/span> would<\/span> seek<\/span> to<\/span> take<\/span> advantage<\/span> of<\/span> this<\/span> period<\/span> of<\/span> instability<\/span> to forcibly<\/span> create<\/span> a regency<\/span> under their<\/span> complete<\/span> and<\/span> direct<\/span> control,<\/span> thereby effectively<\/span> crushing<\/span> the<\/span> hopes<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> for autonomy,<\/span> the<\/span> aged<\/span> counselors<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom gathered<\/span> in<\/span> conclave <\/span>to settle<\/span> upon<\/span> a successor.<\/span><\/p>\n

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H.M.<\/span><\/i> <\/i>King<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Kigeli<\/span><\/i> <\/i>V Ndahindurwa, with Belgian Officials<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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Despite<\/span> the lack<\/span> of<\/span> a direct<\/span> male descendant<\/span> of<\/span> Mutara<\/span> III Rudahigwa,<\/span> however,<\/span> it<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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soon<\/span> became<\/span> apparent that<\/span> he<\/span> had<\/span> <\/i>made known<\/span> his<\/span> wishes<\/span> with<\/span> regard<\/span> to<\/span> the royal<\/span> succession.<\/span> The<\/span> Abb\u00e9<\/span> Kagame,<\/span> one<\/span> of<\/span> the leading religious<\/span> figures<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> kingdom, <\/span>as well<\/span> as a key<\/span> political<\/span> personality,<\/span> declared<\/span> himself<\/span> ready<\/span> to swear <\/span>an oath<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> late<\/span> mwami<\/span> had<\/span> in<\/span> fact<\/span> secretly revealed<\/span> to<\/span> him<\/span> his<\/span> choice for the<\/span> throne.<\/span> That<\/span> his<\/span> choice<\/span> should also<\/span> have<\/span> lighted upon<\/span> a member<\/span> of the<\/span> royal<\/span> family,<\/span> and<\/span> one of<\/span> absolutely<\/span> sterling<\/span> reputation,<\/span> held<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> highest esteem<\/span> by<\/span> both<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> people<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> administration,<\/span> was considered<\/span> to<\/span> be<\/span> nothing<\/span> short<\/span> of<\/span> providential.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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The Investiture of H.M Kigeli V Ndahindurwa<\/i><\/p>\n

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Despite the fact that other candidates were briefly discussed by the abiru, and by members of the Supreme Council, in the end the choice was a clear and resounding one. Mutara’s half-brother, Jean-Baptiste Ndahindurwa, was called upon to take up the burden of the throne, and to be invested with the power and responsibility of the sacred office of mwami. It is quite telling, in fact, that the new mwami, who was famed for his goodwill, his devotion to Christ and his care for the people, did not at all consider himself to be a likely candidate for the throne. According to witnesses, early on the day of his designation as mwami, he had simply gone out to tend to his<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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herds<\/span> of cattle,<\/span> much <\/span>as he had<\/span> done<\/span> in<\/span> the days and<\/span> months<\/span> past, and was<\/span> therefore<\/span> entirely<\/span> unaware<\/span> of<\/span> all<\/span> the<\/span> tumult<\/span> and<\/span> excitement<\/span> surrounding<\/span> his<\/span> elevation<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> kingship.<\/span><\/p>\n

The<\/span> scene<\/span> at the<\/span> public<\/span> funeral<\/span> of the late<\/span> king,<\/span> which took<\/span> place on<\/span> July 28,<\/span> 1959, was<\/span> understandably anything<\/span> but <\/span>a peaceful<\/span> one.<\/span> There was both<\/span> profound<\/span> grief<\/span> and<\/span> considerable tension<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> air,<\/span> as the people<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> court<\/span> prepared<\/span> themselves<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> next<\/span> move<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> administration<\/span> in<\/span> its<\/span> seemingly<\/span> incessant<\/span> campaign<\/span> to cripple<\/span> the<\/span> hopes<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> monarchy.<\/span> The aged<\/span> abiru,<\/span> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>however,<\/span> despite<\/span> their<\/span> relatively<\/span> small<\/span> numbers<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> somewhat<\/span> decrepit<\/span> state<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> traditional<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> protocols<\/span> of<\/span> state,<\/span> were<\/span> to<\/span> play<\/span> their<\/span> hand<\/span> brilliantly,<\/span> effectively<\/span> trumping<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians<\/span> at their<\/span> own<\/span> game.<\/span> Honoring<\/span> scrupulously<\/span> the<\/span> ancient<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> royal<\/span> traditions,<\/span> and<\/span> carefully<\/span> following<\/span> the<\/span> various<\/span> rites<\/span> associated<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> transfer of<\/span> power,<\/span> they<\/span> took<\/span> as their<\/span> central<\/span> inspiration<\/span> the<\/span> ancient <\/span>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>formula<\/span> of<\/span> succession:<\/span> Umwami<\/span> aratabazwa,<\/span> igihugu<\/span> kigahabwa<\/span> undi<\/span> mwami<\/span> kitaraye<\/span> nze<\/span> (“The mwami<\/span> is<\/span> buried, then<\/span> the<\/span> country<\/span> receives<\/span> a new<\/span> mwami, <\/span>\u00a0<\/span>without<\/span> passing<\/span> one<\/span> day<\/span> with<\/span> a vacant<\/span> throne”).<\/span><\/p>\n

After<\/span> the<\/span> funeral<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda’s<\/span> lamented<\/span> hero-king on<\/span> the hill<\/span> of<\/span> Mwima,<\/span> in<\/span> Nyanza,<\/span> the<\/span> announcement of<\/span> his<\/span> successor<\/span> was made<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> presence of<\/span> the<\/span> assembled<\/span> mourners<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> officials<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> administration.<\/span> When<\/span> the<\/span> name<\/span> of<\/span> Ndahindurwa<\/span> was<\/span> made<\/span> known<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> crowd,<\/span> there<\/span> was<\/span> a great<\/span> acclamation<\/span> from<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> people.<\/span> Given<\/span> the<\/span> enormously<\/span> positive<\/span> response<\/span> to the succession<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> young<\/span> monarch<\/span> (who<\/span> assumed<\/span> the<\/span> throne<\/span> name<\/span> of<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa)<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> royal<\/span> dignity,<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> authorities,<\/span> including<\/span> Governor-General<\/span> Jean-Paul<\/span> Harroy,<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

had<\/span> no choice but<\/span> to acknowledge<\/span> that<\/span> they had been<\/span> outmaneuvered<\/span> by<\/span> the abiru,<\/span> and<\/span> they<\/span> were therefore forced <\/span>to put<\/span> a good face<\/span> on their defeat.<\/span> In<\/span> point<\/span> of<\/span> fact,<\/span> however,<\/span> and<\/span> despite<\/span> the<\/span> deeply questionable<\/span> nature<\/span> of<\/span> their ultimate<\/span> plan<\/span> for<\/span> Rwanda,<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> authorities<\/span> themselves<\/span> privately<\/span> expressed<\/span> a sincere,<\/span> if<\/span> somewhat<\/span> grudging respect<\/span> for the<\/span> character<\/span> and<\/span> abilities<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> man who<\/span> had<\/span> just<\/span> become<\/span> king.<\/span><\/p>\n

Born<\/span> in<\/span> Kamembe,<\/span> southwest Rwanda on June<\/span> 29,<\/span> 1936,<\/span> to the<\/span> exiled King Yuhi<\/span> V Musinga<\/span> and<\/span> Queen<\/span> Mukashema,<\/span> the<\/span> young<\/span> mwami<\/span> had<\/span> been<\/span> baptized<\/span> a Roman<\/span> Catholic,<\/span> taking the<\/span> name<\/span> of<\/span> Jean-Baptiste.<\/span> He had<\/span> been<\/span> educated<\/span> at<\/span> the<\/span> Groupe<\/span> Scolaire<\/span> d’Astrida,<\/span> had<\/span> continued<\/span> his<\/span> studies<\/span> at<\/span> Nyangezi<\/span> College<\/span> in<\/span> Zaire<\/span> (modern-<\/span> day<\/span> Democratic<\/span> Republic<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Congo)<\/span> and<\/span> had<\/span> worked<\/span> with<\/span> the Belgian<\/span> administration<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> Astrida<\/span> Territory<\/span> from<\/span> 1956<\/span> to 1958. He<\/span> was<\/span> named<\/span> the<\/span> sub-<\/span> chief<\/span> of<\/span> Bufundu<\/span> in<\/span> 1959,<\/span> and <\/span>was widely recognized<\/span> to be<\/span> a devout young man of<\/span> great<\/span> probity,<\/span> with<\/span> a deep<\/span> sense<\/span> of<\/span> social<\/span> justice<\/span> and<\/span> a keen knowledge of<\/span> his<\/span> country,<\/span> its<\/span> people<\/span> and<\/span> their needs.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Mwami<\/span><\/i> <\/i>Kigeli<\/span><\/i> <\/i>V of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> and<\/span> King<\/span> Baudoin<\/span> of Belgium<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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\nThe<\/span> new<\/span> king’s<\/span> reign<\/span> began<\/span> in<\/span> an<\/span> atmosphere<\/span> of<\/span> extreme<\/span> tension<\/span> and<\/span> growing<\/span> unrest<\/span> among<\/span> certain<\/span> elements<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> people.<\/span> With<\/span> the<\/span> population<\/span> secretly<\/span> stirred<\/span> to dissent<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> authorities,<\/span> who<\/span> sought<\/span> to<\/span> undo<\/span> the<\/span> positive<\/span> accomplishments<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> late<\/span> mwami,<\/span> and<\/span> to<\/span> hobble<\/span> the chances<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> new<\/span> king,<\/span> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>incidents<\/span> of<\/span> political<\/span> violence and<\/span> other<\/span> types<\/span> of<\/span> crime<\/span> grew<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> nation.<\/span> It was not<\/span> until<\/span> October<\/span> 9,<\/span> 1959,<\/span> and<\/span> after<\/span> considerable<\/span> difficulty<\/span> that His<\/span> Majesty<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa<\/span> was to swear<\/span> his<\/span> oath<\/span> of<\/span> investiture<\/span> at<\/span> Kigali.<\/span> As a precaution,<\/span> and<\/span> because<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> volatile<\/span> nature<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> political<\/span> situation<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> struggling country,<\/span> the<\/span> new mwami<\/span> had<\/span> demanded<\/span> that<\/span> explicit mention<\/span> be<\/span> made<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> wish<\/span> to reign<\/span> as a constitutional<\/span> monarch,<\/span> so<\/span> as to avoid<\/span> any<\/span> future<\/span> possibility<\/span> of<\/span> nullification<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> enthronement<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> tutelary<\/span> authorities.<\/span> In<\/span> addition,<\/span> having<\/span> requested<\/span> to reign<\/span> constitutionally,<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa<\/span> was<\/span> now<\/span> possessed<\/span> of<\/span> an almost<\/span> irrefutable<\/span> argument in<\/span> favor of<\/span> the speedy and<\/span> equitable creation<\/span> of<\/span> an independent<\/span> native<\/span> government<\/span> and<\/span> a new<\/span> national<\/span> constitution.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

\n<\/div>\n

H.M King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Sadly,<\/span> however,<\/span> the<\/span> course<\/span> charted<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> devoted<\/span> new<\/span> monarch<\/span> was not<\/span> to be<\/span> realized<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> land.<\/span> Circumstances<\/span> and<\/span> events<\/span> conspired against<\/span> the<\/span> fulfillment<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> plans,<\/span> and<\/span> it<\/span> soon<\/span> became<\/span> painfully<\/span> apparent<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> administration,<\/span> which<\/span> purported<\/span> to favor<\/span> the<\/span> peace and<\/span> stability<\/span> of<\/span> its<\/span> “client” nation,<\/span> was actually<\/span> in<\/span> collusion<\/span> with<\/span> anti-government<\/span> factions<\/span> to<\/span> effect<\/span> the<\/span> downfall<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> monarchy<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> installation<\/span> of<\/span> a new<\/span> and<\/span> more<\/span> malleable<\/span> r\u00e9gime<\/span> under<\/span> its<\/span> watchful<\/span> eye.<\/span> By early<\/span> 1960,<\/span> the<\/span> handwriting was<\/span> most<\/span> clearly on<\/span> the<\/span> wall<\/span> on<\/span> a number<\/span> of<\/span> different<\/span> levels,<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians<\/span> continued<\/span> to do<\/span> their utmost<\/span> to undermine<\/span> the<\/span> monarchical<\/span> prestige<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> increasingly<\/span> popular<\/span> young<\/span> mwami.<\/span> In that<\/span> year,<\/span> the<\/span> portrait<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> mwami,<\/span> which<\/span> had<\/span> previously graced<\/span> banknotes<\/span> and<\/span> coins of<\/span> the Bank<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda,<\/span> was<\/span> replaced<\/span> by<\/span> images<\/span> of<\/span> wild<\/span> animals,<\/span> and<\/span> His<\/span> Majesty’s<\/span> closest<\/span> advisors<\/span> were<\/span> increasingly<\/span> placed<\/span> under<\/span> close<\/span> surveillance<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> Suret\u00e9.<\/span> The<\/span> image<\/span> of<\/span> the kalinga<\/span> also<\/span> disappeared<\/span> from<\/span> public view,<\/span> and<\/span> political<\/span> and<\/span> racial<\/span> violence continued<\/span> to escalate<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> once-peaceful<\/span> kingdom.<\/span> The<\/span> evil<\/span> seeds<\/span> cunningly<\/span> sown<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> European authorities<\/span> over<\/span> the<\/span> course<\/span> of the<\/span> preceding decades<\/span> had<\/span> sadly begun<\/span> to flower<\/span> just<\/span> as Rwanda stood<\/span> on<\/span> the threshold<\/span> of<\/span> full<\/span> independence.<\/span><\/p>\n

In<\/span> a recently<\/span> declassified<\/span> note<\/span> addressed<\/span> to King<\/span> Baudoin<\/span> of<\/span> Belgium on<\/span> October<\/span> 24, 1960 by his<\/span> Grand<\/span> Marshal<\/span> Gobert d’Aspremont<\/span> Lynden,<\/span> uncle<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Minister<\/span> of<\/span> African<\/span> Affairs,<\/span> the<\/span> Marshal<\/span> indicates<\/span> that<\/span> he<\/span> sees<\/span> no<\/span> difficulty<\/span> in<\/span> inviting<\/span> King<\/span> Mwambutsa,<\/span> Mwami<\/span> of<\/span> Urundi,<\/span> to the<\/span> upcoming<\/span> wedding<\/span> of<\/span> Baudoin<\/span> in<\/span> Brussels.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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“As<\/span> for<\/span> Kigeli,<\/span> the<\/span> Mwami<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda,”<\/span> <\/b>continues<\/span> the<\/span> Grand<\/span> Marshal,<\/span> “there<\/span> is<\/span> no question,<\/span> as he<\/span> will<\/span> be<\/span> put<\/span> aside<\/b>.” This constitutes <\/span>one<\/span> of<\/span> the most clear<\/span> and<\/span> striking<\/span> indications<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> secret<\/span> plans<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> authority<\/span> to<\/span> eliminate<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa<\/span> from<\/span> his<\/span> rightful<\/span> position<\/span> as monarch<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> people,<\/span> and<\/span> to<\/span> install<\/span> some<\/span> sort<\/span> of<\/span> imperialist<\/span> puppet<\/span> government<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> place.<\/span><\/p>\n

H.M.<\/span> King<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> himself<\/span> has<\/span> declared<\/span> unequivocally<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> scheme<\/span> for<\/span> his<\/span> removal<\/span> was becoming<\/span> increasingly apparent<\/span> over<\/span> the<\/span> course<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> months.<\/span> “It was evident<\/span> that Logiest<\/span> and<\/span> Harroy wanted<\/span> to chase me<\/span> from<\/span> power,” he<\/span> states.<\/span> “If I was at L\u00e9opoldville<\/span> [at<\/span> the<\/span> time<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> coup<\/span> d’\u00e9tat],<\/span> it<\/span> was<\/span> because <\/span>I wanted<\/span> to meet<\/span> Dag<\/span> Hammarskjold,<\/span> Secretary<\/span> General<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> UN, and<\/span> to plead<\/span> in<\/span> favor<\/span> of<\/span> independence.<\/span> Harroy had<\/span> made<\/span> no<\/span> objection<\/span> to my departure,<\/span> very<\/span> much<\/span> to the<\/span> contrary.<\/span> But<\/span> when<\/span> I returned<\/span> to Rwanda,<\/span> I found<\/span> Belgian<\/span> commandos who<\/span> were<\/span> guarding<\/span> the<\/span> border<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> aim<\/span> of<\/span> keeping<\/span> me<\/span> from<\/span> re-entering<\/span> my country…<\/span> I never<\/span> fled<\/span> Rwanda,<\/span> as people<\/span> have<\/span> said,<\/span> it<\/span> was the<\/span> Belgians<\/span> who<\/span> kept<\/span> me from<\/span> returning,<\/span> for<\/span> they<\/span> wanted<\/span> to establish the Republic…”<\/span> Thus,<\/span> on<\/span> January<\/span> 28,<\/span> 1961,<\/span> in<\/span> both<\/span> haste<\/span> and<\/span> a certain<\/span> measure<\/span> of<\/span> secrecy,<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> government<\/span> arranged<\/span> for<\/span> a meeting<\/span> of<\/span> local<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> burgomasters<\/span> at Gitarama,<\/span> under<\/span> the<\/span> heavily<\/span> armed<\/span> protection<\/span> of<\/span> Belgian<\/span> para-commandos,<\/span> where<\/span> these<\/span> native<\/span> electors<\/span> illegally<\/span> voted<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> abolition<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> monarchy,<\/span> thereby<\/span> leading <\/span>to the<\/span> installation<\/span> of<\/span> the Republic<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> under<\/span> its<\/span> first<\/span> President,<\/span> Dominique<\/span> Mbonyumutu.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

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King Kigeli<\/span><\/i> <\/i>V and<\/span> King Baudoin<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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King<\/span> Kigeli,<\/span> now<\/span> effectively<\/span> barred<\/span> from<\/span> returning<\/span> to his<\/span> homeland<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> successful Belgian<\/span> plot,<\/span> was offered<\/span> a suitable<\/span> residence in<\/span> Kinshasa by<\/span> Patrice<\/span> Lumumba,<\/span> Prime<\/span> Minister<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Congo.<\/span> The<\/span> mwami<\/span> eventually<\/span> did<\/span> manage<\/span> to make<\/span> a journey <\/span>to New<\/span> York,<\/span> where<\/span> he<\/span> was entirely<\/span> successful<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> efforts<\/span> to obtain<\/span> full<\/span> UN support<\/span> for<\/span> the<\/span> independence<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda. <\/span>The<\/span> General<\/span> Assembly<\/span> stipulated<\/span> that<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> government<\/span> should<\/span><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. 1.<\/span>Permit<\/span> the<\/span> repatriation<\/span> of<\/span> all<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> refugees<\/span> who<\/span> had<\/span> fled<\/span> their<\/span> homeland<\/span> during<\/span> the<\/span> oppressive<\/span> Belgian<\/span> r\u00e9gime,<\/span><\/li>\n
  2. 2.<\/span>Accede<\/span> to the<\/span> return<\/span> of<\/span> H.M.<\/span> King<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa<\/span> to<\/span> his<\/span> country<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    and<\/b><\/p>\n

    \u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n

      \n
    1. 3.<\/span>Allow<\/span> Rwanda complete<\/span> control of<\/span> the conduct of<\/span> its<\/span> affairs<\/span> as a free,<\/span> independent<\/span> and<\/span> autonomous<\/span> nation.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n
      \n

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      The<\/span> Belgians<\/span> would<\/span> ultimately<\/span> comply<\/span> with<\/span> none<\/span> of<\/span> these<\/span> demands,<\/span> and<\/span> would<\/span> openly<\/span> defy<\/span> the<\/span> entirety<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> UN<\/span> mandate,<\/span> instead<\/span> unilaterally<\/span> proclaiming<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> to be<\/span> a Republic at<\/span> the end<\/span> of 1961.<\/span> In<\/span> July<\/span> of<\/span> 1962,<\/span> they<\/span> granted full<\/span> independence<\/span> to the<\/span> struggling<\/span> and<\/span> beleaguered<\/span> nation,<\/span> now<\/span> bereft<\/span> of<\/span> its<\/span> mwami,<\/span> the<\/span> traditional<\/span> spiritual<\/span> and<\/span> political<\/span> father of<\/span> the<\/span> Banyarwanda.<\/span> According<\/span> to one<\/span> of<\/span> His<\/span> Majesty’s<\/span> closest<\/span> advisors,<\/span> H.<\/span> E.<\/span> Chancellor<\/span> Boniface<\/span> Benzinge,<\/span><\/p>\n

      As resolved by<\/span> the<\/span> United<\/span> Nations,<\/span> during <\/span>the<\/span> first<\/span> election<\/span> before<\/span> independence,<\/span> King<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V went<\/span> to<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> to<\/span> assist<\/span> the<\/span> first<\/span> elections,<\/span> but<\/span> he <\/span>ran<\/span> into<\/span> a complication<\/span> \u2013 all<\/span> Belgian<\/span> guards <\/span>at<\/span> the<\/span> border<\/span> had<\/span> orders<\/span> to<\/span> illegally<\/span> arrest <\/span>the<\/span> King<\/span> if<\/span> he<\/span> tried<\/span> to<\/span> return.<\/span> Thus,<\/span> His <\/span>Majesty<\/span> left Tanzania<\/span> during<\/span> the<\/span> night<\/span> for friendly<\/span> Burundi,<\/span> and<\/span> then<\/span> from Burundi<\/span> crossed <\/span>the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> border<\/span> with<\/span> the<\/span> assistance<\/span> of<\/span> a pregnant <\/span>woman,<\/span> who<\/span> posed <\/span>as<\/span> if<\/span> she<\/span> was<\/span> about<\/span> to<\/span> deliver. When <\/span>the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> paratroopers <\/span>at<\/span> the<\/span> border<\/span> began<\/span> to<\/span> harass<\/span> the<\/span> pregnant lady,<\/span> a case<\/span> of<\/span> beer<\/span> was<\/span> procured<\/span> and<\/span> delivered <\/span>to<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> troops.<\/span> As<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians<\/span> happily<\/span> drank<\/span> their<\/span> \u00a0<\/span>beer,<\/span> the<\/span> King<\/span> crossed<\/span> the<\/span> border<\/span> and<\/span> arrived <\/span>in<\/span> Kigali<\/span> a little<\/span> after<\/span> midnight.<\/span> By <\/span>the<\/span> next dawn,<\/span> many<\/span> people heard rumors <\/span>that<\/span> the<\/span> King<\/span> had<\/span> returned<\/span> to<\/span> their<\/span> country,<\/span> and<\/span> they<\/span> celebrated.<\/span> But<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians intervened <\/span>and<\/span> arrested<\/span> him,<\/span> taking<\/span> him<\/span> by<\/span> military<\/span> helicopter<\/span> to<\/span> Bujumbura,<\/span> where<\/span> he<\/span> was<\/span> placed<\/span> under<\/span> house-arrest.<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

      The<\/span> heavy-handed<\/span> treatment of<\/span> the<\/span> King by the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> authorities<\/span> shocked<\/span> many<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> international<\/span> diplomatic<\/span> community,<\/span> particularly<\/span> after<\/span> his<\/span> successful<\/span> bid<\/span> for<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> independence<\/span> at the<\/span> United<\/span> Nations.<\/span> “Fortunately,”<\/span> continues<\/span> the<\/span> Chancellor,<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

      \n

      before<\/span> he<\/span> left Tanzania<\/span> (where<\/span> he<\/span> was<\/span> living<\/span> in<\/span> exile), <\/span>King<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V informed <\/span>the<\/span> former<\/span> President<\/span> Julius Nyerere<\/span> about his <\/span>trip<\/span> and<\/span> how the<\/span> visit<\/span> was<\/span> in<\/span> accord <\/span>with<\/span> the<\/span> resolutions<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> General<\/span> Assembly<\/span> of <\/span>the<\/span> United<\/span> Nations.<\/span> As soon <\/span>as<\/span> Julius<\/span> Nyerere<\/span> heard<\/span> of <\/span>the<\/span> arrest,<\/span> he sent<\/span> a telegram<\/span> to<\/span> the<\/span> Belgian<\/span> governor of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> and<\/span> Burundi,<\/span> the<\/span> same<\/span> Mr.<\/span> Jean-Paul<\/span> Harroy,<\/span> telling<\/span> him<\/span> that<\/span> if<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians<\/span> continued<\/span> to<\/span> refuse <\/span>to<\/span> abide<\/span> by<\/span> United<\/span> Nations<\/span> resolutions,<\/span> they<\/span> should<\/span> send <\/span>the<\/span> King<\/span> immediately<\/span> to<\/span> Dar-es-Salaam.<\/span> If<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians<\/span> did <\/span>not [comply],<\/span> all<\/span> Belgians<\/span> living<\/span> in<\/span> Dar-es-Salaam<\/span> would<\/span> be<\/span> arrested.<\/span> Mr.<\/span> Jean <\/span>Paul<\/span> Harroy<\/span> acquiesced<\/span> and<\/span> sent<\/span> His<\/span> Majesty<\/span> back<\/span> to<\/span> Tanzania<\/span> —<\/span> accompanied<\/span> by<\/span> tw<\/span>o<\/span> Belgians<\/span> to<\/span> ensure<\/span> the<\/span> King <\/span>did<\/span> nothing<\/span> further<\/span> to<\/span> try<\/span> to<\/span> help<\/span> his<\/span> people. This<\/span> was<\/span> the<\/span> last<\/span> time<\/span> King<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V has<\/span> been<\/span> in<\/span> Rwanda.<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

      Since<\/span> the<\/span> time<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> enforced<\/span> exile<\/span> by<\/span> the<\/span> Belgians,<\/span> H.M.<\/span> King Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa<\/span> has<\/span> lived<\/span> the<\/span> entirety<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> life<\/span> abroad,<\/span> first in<\/span> Dar es<\/span> Salaam,<\/span> Tanzania<\/span> (1961<\/span> to 1962), and<\/span> then<\/span> in<\/span> Nairobi, Kenya<\/span> (1963-1971).<\/span> He<\/span> has<\/span> also<\/span> lived<\/span> in<\/span> Kampala,<\/span> Uganda<\/span> (1972-1978)<\/span> and<\/span> again<\/span> in<\/span> Nairobi<\/span> (1979-1992). <\/span>In June<\/span> of<\/span> 1992, <\/span>he<\/span> was<\/span> granted<\/span> political<\/span> asylum<\/span> by the <\/span>US government,<\/span> and<\/span> has<\/span> lived<\/span> in<\/span> Washington,<\/span> DC,<\/span> since<\/span> that<\/span> time.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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      A Recent<\/span> Photo<\/span> of H.M. King<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa,<\/span> with<\/span> H.E.<\/span> Chancellor<\/span> Boniface<\/span> Benzinge<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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      His<\/span> Majesty<\/span> regularly<\/span> travels<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> world<\/span> to speak<\/span> out<\/span> on<\/span> issues<\/span> related<\/span> to the<\/span> happiness,<\/span> security and<\/span> prosperity<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> people,<\/span> and<\/span> has<\/span> received<\/span> an immense<\/span> amount<\/span> of<\/span> praise,<\/span> as well<\/span> as numerous<\/span> international<\/span> awards<\/span> and<\/span> high<\/span> rank<\/span> in<\/span> various<\/span> knightly<\/span> orders<\/span> and<\/span> confraternities<\/span> for<\/span> his<\/span> tireless<\/span> efforts<\/span> on<\/span> behalf<\/span> of<\/span> justice<\/span> and<\/span> peace in<\/span> Rwanda.<\/span> He<\/span> is<\/span> the founder and<\/span> head<\/span> of<\/span> the King Kigeli<\/span> V Foundation,<\/span> which<\/span> works<\/span> to<\/span> support<\/span> humanitarian<\/span> initiatives<\/span> on<\/span> behalf<\/span> of<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> refugees<\/span> throughout<\/span> the<\/span> world.<\/span> In addition,<\/span> he<\/span> is<\/span> the<\/span> Sovereign<\/span> Grand Master<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Royal<\/span> Order of<\/span> the<\/span> Lion<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda,<\/span> founded<\/span> during<\/span> the<\/span> reign<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> late brother,<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

      \n

      H.M. Mutara<\/span> III Rudahigwa,<\/span> as well<\/span> as of<\/span> the Royal<\/span> Orders<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Drum,<\/span> the Crown<\/span> and<\/span> the Crested<\/span> Crane.<\/span> A devout Roman<\/span> Catholic<\/span> believer,<\/span> he<\/span> was recently<\/span> made<\/span> a Grand<\/span> Cross<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Real<\/span> Confraria<\/span> de<\/span> Sao<\/span> Teotonio<\/span> of<\/span> Portugal,<\/span> as well<\/span> as a Confr\u00e8re<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Most<\/span> Prestigious<\/span> Brotherhood<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Most<\/span> Blessed<\/span> Sacrament<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Noble<\/span> City<\/span> of<\/span> Lisbon.<\/span><\/p>\n

      The<\/span> decades<\/span> that have followed<\/span> the<\/span> forced<\/span> exile of<\/span> its<\/span> mwami<\/span> have<\/span> been<\/span> violent<\/span> and<\/span> painful<\/span> ones<\/span> for the Rwandan<\/span> nation,<\/span> and<\/span> the<\/span> way ahead<\/span> still remains<\/span> fundamentally<\/span> unclear.<\/span> Manipulated<\/span> and<\/span> betrayed<\/span> by<\/span> foreign<\/span> interlopers,<\/span> torn<\/span> asunder<\/span> during decades<\/span> of<\/span> civil strife<\/span> and<\/span> unspeakable<\/span> brutality,<\/span> the<\/span> people<\/span> of<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> have throughout these<\/span> many<\/span> tragic<\/span> ordeals<\/span> been<\/span> deprived<\/span> of<\/span> the inspired<\/span> leadership<\/span> of<\/span> their<\/span> traditional<\/span> ruler,<\/span> the<\/span> chief<\/span> bulwark<\/span> and<\/span> support<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> social,<\/span> political<\/span> and<\/span> spiritual<\/span> life<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> nation.<\/span><\/p>\n

      The<\/span> very fabric<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Rwandan<\/span> state<\/span> has<\/span> been<\/span> fatally<\/span> compromised<\/span> by<\/span> this<\/span> important<\/span> lacuna,<\/span> and<\/span> the resulting chaos<\/span> and<\/span> suffering<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> past<\/span> four decades<\/span> have<\/span> sadly dogged<\/span> the<\/span> halting<\/span> development of<\/span> the<\/span> struggling<\/span> republic.<\/span> None<\/span> can<\/span> foretell<\/span> the<\/span> full<\/span> nature<\/span> or duration<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> mandates<\/span> of<\/span> Providence,<\/span> but<\/span> with<\/span> faith<\/span> in<\/span> the<\/span> right,<\/span> and<\/span> with<\/span> a firm<\/span> confidence<\/span> in<\/span> his<\/span> ultimate value<\/span> to his<\/span> beloved<\/span> homeland,<\/span> His<\/span> Majesty<\/span> Kigeli<\/span> V Ndahindurwa,<\/span> Umwami<\/span> w’u<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> continues<\/span> to work<\/span> tirelessly<\/span> on<\/span> behalf<\/span> of<\/span> his<\/span> orphaned<\/span> people,<\/span> the<\/span> nation<\/span> of<\/span> the<\/span> Banyarwanda.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

      SUMMARY<\/span> BIBLIOGRAPHY:<\/span><\/p>\n

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      Works<\/span> Consulted<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

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        \n
      1. 1.<\/span>Benzinge,<\/span> Boniface:<\/span> “How King<\/span> Kigeli <\/span>V Was<\/span> Exiled”<\/span> <\/i>(2007)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
          \n
        1. 2.<\/span>Braeckman,<\/span> Colette: “La<\/i><\/span> fin de<\/span> la monarchie<\/span> \u00e9tait<\/span> annonc\u00e9e”<\/span> <\/i>(2001)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
            \n
          1. 3.<\/span>Chr\u00e9tien,<\/span> Jean-Pierre:<\/span> The Great<\/span> Lakes<\/span> of<\/span> Africa: <\/span>Two<\/span> Thousand<\/span> Years of<\/span> History<\/span><\/i><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            (1997)<\/span><\/p>\n

              \n
            1. 4.<\/span>Chr\u00e9tien,<\/span> Jean-Pierre:<\/span> Roi,<\/span> religion, lignages<\/span> en Afrique<\/span> orientale<\/span> pr\u00e9-coloniale:<\/span> Royaut\u00e9<\/span> sans<\/span> \u00e9tat<\/span> et monarchies absolues<\/span> <\/i>(1986)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

                \n
              1. 5.<\/span>Goebel,<\/span> Claude:<\/span> “Mutara<\/span> Rudahigwa,<\/span> Mwami<\/span> du Ruanda”<\/span> <\/i>(1949)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                  \n
                1. 6.<\/span>Harroy,<\/span> Jean-Paul:<\/span> Rwanda:<\/span> De la<\/span> f\u00e9odalit\u00e9<\/span> \u00e0 la<\/span> d\u00e9mocratie,<\/span> 1955-1962<\/span> <\/i>(1984)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                    \n
                  1. 7.<\/span>d’Hertefelt,<\/span> M et Coupez,<\/span> A: La royaut\u00e9<\/span> sacr\u00e9e<\/span> de<\/span> l’ancien<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> <\/i>(1964)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                      \n
                    1. 8.<\/span>Kagame,<\/span> Alexis:<\/span> Un abr\u00e9g\u00e9 <\/span>de l’histoire<\/span> du Rwanda<\/span> de 1853<\/span> \u00e0 1972<\/span> <\/i>(1975)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                        \n
                      1. 9.<\/span>Kagame,<\/span> Alexis:<\/span> Le<\/span> code<\/span> des institutions<\/span> politiques <\/span>du Rwanda<\/span> <\/i>(1952)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                          \n
                        1. 10.<\/span>Kagame,<\/span> Alexis: “Le<\/i><\/span> Rwanda <\/span>et<\/span> son<\/span> roi”<\/span> <\/i>(1945)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                            \n
                          1. 11.<\/span>Logiest,<\/span> Georges: Mission<\/i><\/span> au<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> <\/i>(1988)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                              \n
                            1. 12.<\/span>de<\/span> la<\/span> Mairieu,<\/span> Paternoster:<\/span> Le Rwanda:<\/span> Son effort de d\u00e9veloppement<\/span> <\/i>(1972)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                \n
                              1. 13.<\/span>Murengo,<\/span> Donat:<\/span> La r\u00e9volution<\/span> rwandaise<\/span> <\/i>(1975)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                  \n
                                1. 14.<\/span>Pages,<\/span> Alexandre:<\/span> Un<\/span> royaume<\/span> hamite<\/span> au<\/span> centre<\/span> de<\/span> l’Afrique<\/span> <\/i>(1933)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                    \n
                                  1. 15.<\/span>Reyntjens,<\/span> Filip:<\/span> “Mort<\/span> du mwami<\/span> Mutara Rudahigwa<\/span> et<\/span> av\u00e8nement<\/span> du mwami<\/span> Kigeri<\/span> V Ndahindurwa<\/span> <\/i>(1985)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                                    \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

                                      \n
                                    1. 16.<\/span>Reyntjens,<\/span> Filip: Pouvoir<\/i><\/span> et droit<\/span> au<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> <\/i>(1985)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                        \n
                                      1. 17.<\/span>Sehene,<\/span> Benjamin: <\/span>Rwanda <\/span>et<\/span> litt\u00e9rature: <\/span>Histoire<\/span> du Rwanda<\/span> <\/i>(2006)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                          \n
                                        1. 18.<\/span>Vansina,<\/span> Jan:<\/span> L’\u00e9volution<\/span> du royaume<\/span> du Rwanda<\/span> des origines <\/span>\u00e0 1900<\/span> <\/i>(1962)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                            \n
                                          1. 19.<\/span>Vansina,<\/span> Jan:<\/span> Le<\/span> Rwanda<\/span> ancien: <\/span>Le royaume<\/span> Nyiginya<\/span> <\/i>(2001)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                                            The Kings of Rwanda \u00a0 \u00a0 Fathers of a Nation \u00a0 by Stewart Addington Saint-David \u00a0   a publication of \u00a0 The Royal Rwandan Association of Knighthood and Nobility PART I The Eye of God:Rwandan Kings of the Pre-Colonial Age (ca. 1200-1895 AD) \u00a0 In an era of ten-second sound bytes and mass media, it<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1983","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1983","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1983"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1983\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4639,"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1983\/revisions\/4639"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1983"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1983"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/egretnews.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1983"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}